Introduction

Education is a fundamental human value that plays a supportive role in leading a disciplined life and contributing to societal development. As a result, the education of both men and women is necessary. Education is a series of progressive activities that facilitate learning or the acquisition of skills, knowledge and values (Alatise et al., 2024). Education is the most important tool in present day living to prosper and live in peace. Education enlightens the mind and soul and helps grow and develop them (Firdous and Ali, 2017). Similarly, Pedrajas and Jalandoni (2023) mentioned that education encompasses more than just knowledge acquisition. It plays a significant part in the process of socialization and the dissemination of standards and ideals like gender equality. Eseine-Aloja and Ebahi (2021) said that education is a tool and process of transformation. According to Adekitan and Shobayo (2020), the value of education is greatly determined by the quality of the education system to which a student is exposed. The importance of tertiary academic success has been accepted for a successful life. The term tertiary education is a relatively recent one. Previously, the more common term was higher education, but tertiary education was adopted by the review in order to reflect the growing diversity of institutions and programmes (Santiago et al., 2008). University students' time use decisions vary across students and their activities. These factors are influential to activity contents and/or activity locations, differently (Li1 et al., 2021). In educational institutions, success is measured by academic performance or how well a student meets standards set by the educational institution (Illahi and Khandai, 2015).

In Bangladesh, steps taken to expand women's education have increased women's participation in higher education. Despite gender-based differences, their outcomes also vary. Singh (2023) mentioned that higher education has long been recognized as a powerful catalyst for societal change. Higher education is a pathway to economic independence for women. It equips them with the skills needed to enter the workforce, access higher-paying jobs, and contribute significantly to their family's financial well-being. According to Parajuli and Thapa (2017), gender refers to socially constructed differences between male and female. Obi et al. (2024) mentioned that the word “gender” is a generic term, normally used to indicate the distinction between humans based on the masculinity/feminity dichotomy. Victor et al. (2024) said that gender is a biological as well as socially and culturally constructed concept of masculinity and femininity on individuals' actions, opportunities, and societal expectations. The concept of gender has impacted every segment of societal interactions including students’ academic performance which encompasses acquisition of information across cognitive, emotional, and psychomotor domains encountered in formal educational environment. Karisa and Mwikamba (2024) mentioned that gender roles in education reflect societal expectations regarding the behaviors, interests, and responsibilities of students based on their gender. These roles influence the learning experiences, educational choices, and academic achievements of pupils. Abedin et al. (2023) also mentioned that gender, being a fundamental aspect of one's identity, holds the power to influence an individual's academic trajectory. Gender is mainly used conventionally to describe how society gives certain roles to boys and girls (Gicana and Daradar, 2023).

Time management plays an integral role in students’ day-to-day lives. Effective time management is critical for student success in academics and personal growth. Effective time management not only allows individuals to complete their responsibilities and meet deadlines but also helps reduce stress, increase focus, and create a better work-life balance. Time management is the ability to use one’s time efficiently and effectively. According to Arumugam et al. (2021), time is a priceless resource and continues to pass by without coming back therefore, the secret to achieve success in life is effectively managing this resource that everyone possesses equally and paying sufficient emphasis to plan. Time management is an important tool and capabilities that brought to solve any problem to achieve any success or to have the maximum benefits after putting in minimum inputs. Similarly, Ismailova and Zayniddinova (2023) said that time management for students is of utmost importance to balance their studies with other daily essential tasks. Good time management reflects on your health and also adds to your energy to achieve more. Yazhini et al. (2021) also said that time management is the art of arranging, organizing, and scheduling one’s time for generating more effective and productive work. Students’ academic performance is a measure of how the student has performed for a period in the academic parlance (Aisida, 2021). However, this variation is not only due to the cooperation of the family but also the support of different communities and social systems, which, along with achieving life goals, has a clear impact on their outcomes through various activities.

Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study was to examine the gender-based multifaceted activities in relation to academic performance at the tertiary level in Bangladesh. Besides this, the following objectives were considered in this study:

a) to identify the daily spending time of the respondents;

b) to investigate the relationship between academic achievements and other associated factors;

c) to find out the differences for examination preparation of the respondents, and

d) to know the opinions of the respondents for the developments.

Ideas on Time management

The term “time management” became familiar in the 1950s and 1960s as referring to a tool to help managers make better use of available time (Razali et al., 2018). The concept of time management comes from Frederick Winslow Taylor for early analysis of motion and time studies of workers with purpose to reduce unproductive work tasks and time wasting (Arumugam et al. 2021). Liao et al. (2013) proposed the following six types of social time found on a modern university campus that are experienced by individuals. These are scheduled time, timeless time, endless time, compressed time, wasted time, time as goal. Nasrullah and Khan (2015) said that time management plays a vital role in improving students’ academic performance and achievements. Each student should have time management ability which includes setting goals and priorities, using time management mechanism and being organized in using time. They also noted an association between time management abilities and educational outcomes. Yazhini et al. (2021) said that time management can be defined as the skill of organizing and prioritizing how to divide the person’s time between specific activities.

Review of the Related Literature

Ubabudu (2024) mentioned that education is the whole gamut of imparting lifelong learning skills, reflective learning, shared knowledge, morals, values, and beliefs through effective pedagogical teaching and learning delivery as well as holistic evaluation in self-awareness, relationships, problem-solving skills, emotional, cultural intelligence, creativity, to support individual learners of diverse origins develop their latent potentials, academic, physical, emotional, social, and moral capacities. Several studies on time management, gender issues and academic achievement have been reviewed in the study to find the research gap.

Time Management

Time management as behaviours that aim at achieving an effective use of time while performing certain goal-directed activities. Broadly speaking, time management refers to activities that imply an effective use of time that is deemed to facilitate productivity and alleviate stress. A common feature among the conceptualizations of time management is planning behavior (Claessens et al, 2007). Jackson (2009) said that the implementation of realistic time management plans can improve productivity and the quality of life. Cyril (2015) revealed that female students are better than male students in time management. Alyami et al. (2021) mentioned that the students with positive attitude and who claimed to manage time and meet their deadlines were also had high academic grades. Whereas, short-term and long-term time management were not associated with a high GPA. Li1 et al. (2021) opined that the cross-sectoral perspective emphasizes that a better university life should not only be just a focus of educators, but also need the involvement of stakeholders in other sectors, which are associated with non-studying activities that are directly/indirectly influential to studying time. This study has presented a relatively holistic research framework that can capture university students’ time-use behaviors and influential factors. Efron (2023) revealed that efficient time and space management allows you to be more productive and to enjoy academic life to the fullest. Arugaslan (2024) found a negative relationship between academic dishonesty behavior and time management skills. Therefore, the findings indicate that students with effective time management skills are less likely to engage in academic dishonesty. Ahmad et al. (2024) explored the relationship between a sense of purpose and academic performance among undergraduate students, with time management as a crucial moderator in this investigation. Terzi et al (2024) revealed that the interplay between free time management, leisure satisfaction, and quality of life is influenced by gender, age, and participation in physical activity.

Gender Issues

The term gender was offered by the American psychoanalyst Robert Stoller in the second half of the 20th century to describe the social aspects of gender as opposed to the concept of biological sex, which reflects the actual biological differences between women and men (Shadurski and Lukina, 2016). Females to score significantly higher than males on achievement goal and study time (Pirmohamed et al., 2017; Egata et al., 2017). Quadlina (2018) mentioned that by most measures, girls and women have better academic performance than do boys and men. She also added that women made great strides over the course of the twentieth century, demonstrating strong achievement across levels of education and entering the workforce in record numbers. Gabdrakhmanova et al. (2019) said that women and girls face difficulties on the way to obtaining and completing education. Catherinei (2020) opined that the male students perform better than their female counterparts. Ullah and Yousaf (2020) revealed that there is a positive relationship among the self-efficacy of the students, along with their academic performance. A high level of self-efficacy has been observed in male students as compared to female students. Kisigot et al. (2021) reported that there was a relationship between students’ gender and academic achievement. Wolters and Brady (2021) found that students’ planning and their time management are closely connected. Planning decisions that are focused on cognitive, motivational, or emotional concerns are likely to have implications for students’ use of time. Abuh (2021) revealed that the significant influence of gender on the mean achievement of students in Science and Technology education. Male student’ perform better than female fork in Science and Technology education. Tsekpo et al. (2023) said that males outperformed females in the subjective test in both the pre-test and post-test; females outperformed males in the objective test in both the pre-test and post-test; and that in the practical test, females outperformed males in the pre-test by a small margin but by a larger margin in the post-test. Bhatti et al. (2023) opined that there were notable gender discrepancies among undergraduates, and female students performed much better academically than male students, as indicated by the cumulative grade point average they earned at the university. Deng (2024) mentioned that family, school and society play an important role in shaping an individual’s gender socialization, and that families can break down gender bias by changing their own traditional behaviors, breaking down gender stereotypes, not interfering with their children’s interests, and encouraging and allowing their children to make free choices about their education. Godara (2024) opined that empowering girls through education not only enhances their individual potential but also contributes to economic growth, social stability, and improved health outcomes. Mapanje (2024) revealed that the influence of parental gender roles on children's academic performance is a multifaceted issue that encompasses various socio-cultural and psychological dynamics. Ubabudu (2024) demonstrated that female students perform noticeably better academically than their male counterparts. Alatise et al. (2024) opined that female students were discovered to have outperformed their male counterparts in virtually all academic programmes, including those generally classified as male-concentrated ones.

Nasir et al. (2025) mentioned that a combination of social, psychological and socioeconomic factors influences gender inconsistencies in academic performance, acknowledging these factors is essential for creating educational strategies and addressing gender-specific learning styles, taking into consideration external stressors in improving effective teaching strategies, ensuring equity in academic aptitude, and providing full potentiality for both genders. Moraga-Pumarino et al. (2025) mentioned that the gender differences in academic self-efficacy among business students, emphasizing the importance of tailored interventions. Their findings indicate that women, in particular, could benefit from initiatives that strengthen personal efficacy beliefs and address cultural barriers. Osijirin et al. (2025) recommended encouraging female students to engage confidently in computer studies and called for equitable learning opportunities regardless of gender.

Academic Achievements

Illahi and Khandai (2015) opined that good study habits include being organized, keeping good notes and reading textbook, listening in class, and working every day. Bad study habits include skipping class, not doing work, watching too much TV or playing video games instead of studying, and losing work. Without good study habits, a student cannot succeed. Adekitan and Shobayo (2020) revealed that there is a tendency for the performance of female students to progressively improve from the first to the final year, whereas for male students, a tendency for performance decline is noted. This may be due to peer pressure and the social lifestyle of male students which provide major avenues of distraction from the academic demands of a modern-day university. Arumugam et al. (2021) mentioned that their study influences the relationship between the time management that impact academic achievement of the teenagers. Almoslamani (2022) found that learning strategies are a significant predictor of students’ academic achievement. Students have to pay more attention to the use of these learning strategies if they are to enhance their academic performance. Rudhumbu (2022) opined that interaction levels have a significant influence on the academic performance of all university students. Abedin et al. (2023) opined that academic performance is a critical aspect of students' educational journey, reflecting their learning outcomes and overall success. Portillo (2023) mentioned that it is important to understand that students learn in different ways and that holding everyone accountable will predict the result in the classroom environment. For that reason, understanding students' culture and what culture entails is key to helping students and families. Skrbinjek (2023) opined that good time management is a crucial aspect of academic success. People who effectively manage their time experience reduced tension and stress, and have fewer difficulties balancing work and family as well as issues related to well-being. Kassaw and Demareva (2023) identified many factors that affect academic achievement, including controllable factors such as facility-related variables, emotional factors, and lifestyle factors. They also added that academic success is a measure of students’ ability to attain their educational objectives, often assessed through regular evaluations or examinations.

Ubabudu (2024) opined that poor quality education is widely acknowledged to have some adverse effects on student’s academic performance, poor lifestyle choices, professional growth and development, and general well-being, which will conversely affect the growth and development of the country. Munir et al. (2024) viewed that discipline in education is a critical aspect that plays a pivotal role in shaping academic achievement at the university level.

Aden (2025) said that students’ academic success plays a vital role in the economic prosperity and social development of any society and reflects the quality of the education system that produces high-skilled, knowledgeable and experienced graduates who will become effective leaders and hardworking manpower. Jaafar et al. (2025) opined that academic excellence is influenced by a multitude of factors, including self-concept, students' attitudes, and their intrinsic motivation. As such, prioritizing core subjects while fostering a holistic learning environment is crucial to ensuring an integrated and effective educational process, ultimately leading to improved academic performance. Luka1et al. (2025) showed that self-efficacy has a significant impact on students' academic achievement. Specifically, students with high self-efficacy tend to perform better academically compared to those with low self-efficacy. Masnan et al. (2025) provided valuable insights into the effects of self-esteem, sleep quality, class attendance, time management, and sense of purpose on academic performance among undergraduate students in Malaysia. Positive and statistically significant relationship with academic performance. Fu et al. (2025) mentioned that self-control and mobile phone dependence act as significant mediators in the relationship between time management and study engagement. Galaviz et al. (2025) mentioned that a low level of correlation between grade point average and academic time management. Keyes et al. (2025) showed that a relatively simple time allocation reflection exercise can enhance the amount of time students plan to spend on their future assignments. Alam et al. (2025) opined that the emotional toll is severe, with many reporting anxiety, depression, low motivation, and declining academic performance, as some skip classes or fall behind in coursework. Vieriu and Petrea (2025) mentioned that students are encouraged to take an active role in their learning process by developing skills in exploration, analysis, and problem-solving. Critical thinking skills are essential for shaping students’ overall learning experiences.

So many authors tried to investigate the different issues in relation to time management, still, the following gender based issues on the daily spending time of the respondents, the relationship between academic achievements with others associate factors, the examination preparation differences of the respondents, and the developments of the respondents yet reveled in the context of Bangladesh.

Theoretical Framework

Functionalism

Functionalism is a theoretical perspective that focuses on the functions performed in society by social structures such as institutions, hierarchies, and norms. Within this theory, function refers to the extent to which a given activity promotes or interferes with the maintenance of a system (Gomez-Diago, 2020). Functionalism takes a structural (or systems) approach to the study of human societies. This means that they see society as an organized system of interrelated parts or ‘structures’ such as institutions (e.g. Education, the nuclear family), this system of institutions (or structures) work together to form the society as a whole (Milton, 2007). In functionalism, mutual interdependence plays a key role. For students' learning and achievement of good results, there exists mutual interdependence among family, educational institutions, accommodation, studies, and related factors.

Activity Theory

Activity theory is a conceptual framework based on the idea that activity is primary, that doing precedes thinking, and that goals, images, cognitive models, intentions, and abstract notions (Morf and Weber, 2000). Activity theory is a framework for studying various forms of human behavior and social practices. It considers the activity interaction between individuals, organizations, social groups, etc. with their context (culture, norms, rules, values, technologies, artifacts, and power structures) as the basic unit of social systems (Adamides, 2023). Students prepare for studies, classes, and examinations at various times in the hope of achieving good results. For this, they require proper time management, including sleep and rest.

Theory of Academic Performance

Performance is the ability of a student to complete a task. The task completion results could be positive or negative (Balogun et al., 2020). According to the theory of academic performance, it can be used to improve performance. To perform is to produce valued result, and a performer as an individual or a group that engages in collaborative effort (Elger, 2007). There are differences in academic performance between male and female students. They achieve results commensurate with their respective efforts in studying.

Role Theory

According to the social role theory, the differences between the behaviors of women and men can be explained by gender stereotypes and social roles (Çimen and Serin, 2021). Concepts of role theory can be traced back to before 1900, although the use of the term ‘role’ only became common in the 1930s. The basic idea is that individuals have various roles in life and that these roles come with prescriptions on how individuals should behave (Van der Horst, 2016). Role theories examine how individual behavior is shaped by prevailing social roles and provide insights into how behavior is perceived by others in light of such roles (Anglin et al., 2022). Role theory operates under the key assumption that individuals have various roles that they play in daily life (Biddle, 1986). According to gender role theory, men and women are beholden to certain behavioral prescriptions based upon their gender (Smith et al., 2013). The primary task of students is to study regularly. To this end, they manage their time and engage in all related activities. In this regard, differences can be observed between male and female students.

Research Methodology

Data were collected from the Department of Sociology, University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh. Respondents were admitted to the department in the 2020-2021 academic session. They have completed six semesters of three years out of eight semesters of four years. They are studying in the seventh semester. All the students of this semester were selected for collection of data purposively due to realize the scenario based on gender. The total numbers of the respondents were 103 among them 39 were male students and 64 were female students. This study was explorative in nature. Tools and techniques based on the objectives of the study, social survey and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) methods were used for the collection of data. A questionnaire was used as a technique of social survey method in which open-ended and closed-ended questions were included. A check list was used for the FGD method, and data of FGD method was used for the analysis of the tables and figures. In the table and figures percentages are calculated based on gender. One FGD was conducted, including male and female students. Eight members were participated in the FGD. Though this research is not enough to interpret the findings in a whole university in the country but it will help to the students, new researcher, and policy maker to understand the scenario of the gender based activities and academic performance at the tertiary level in Bangladesh.

Results and Discussion

Spending Daily Time

Table 1: Analysis of the daily spending time of the respondents

Most of the respondents spent their daily time on various multifaceted activities, especially attending classes, studying regularly, using mobile phones to find study materials, using social media to stay connected and updated, gossiping for refreshment, and sleeping. These activities helped them prepare for classes and ultimately achieve good academic results.

Study Time

Table 2: Analysis of the study time of the respondents

Regular study boosts knowledge enrichment and helps to achieve the best results. Respondents studied at different times, such as early morning, morning, noon, afternoon, evening, and night. Data shows that female students were much more studious than male students. Female students tried to study whenever they got the opportunity, which was reflected in their academic results.

Those who preferred to study in the early morning cited a fresh mind, cool environment, better memorization, studying one month before examinations, and feeling better overall. Those who preferred morning mentioned a calm mind, better retention, studying before class, and a quiet environment. Those who preferred noon said they did not rest at noon, studied for career preparation after resting, and found the library best at this time due to less pressure. Those who preferred the afternoon noted a refreshed mind after sleeping, focused on revision, read newspapers, and could not study at night. Those who preferred evening felt better during this time, prepared notes, memorized easily, studied important topics, and remained attentive. Those who preferred night mentioned deep concentration at night, a silent environment, no noise, regular study habits, being accustomed to night study, more opportunities to study at night, and a fresh mind after the day.

Pressure of Studying

Table 3: Analysis of opinions of the respondents on the pressure of study

Data shows that female students felt more study pressure than male students due to dissatisfaction with academic results, lack of interest in studying more, mental strain from excessive study, difficulty understanding sociological issues, lack of enjoyment in studies, poor memorization, doubts about the utility of the subject, limited institutional resources, inattention in class, psychological pressure from financial crises, simultaneous pressure from academic study and job preparation, and the vast curriculum content hindering understanding.

On the other hand, most of the respondents did not feel any study pressure because it contributed to a better future, fulfilled their dreams, enriched personal development, and supported overall career and future growth.

Opinions on Study

Table 4: Analysis of opinions of the respondents on the study

Data shows that most of the respondents, both male and female, found their studies pleasant. Only a few respondents felt it was very pleasant, while some experienced pressure and dissatisfaction with the results. Both male and female students sometimes found studying painful due to dissatisfaction and difficulty understanding sociological issues.

Academic Achievements and Fathers Occupations

Table 5: Analysis of the relations between academic achievements and fathers’ occupation of the respondents

Encouragement and family support are crucial for students to achieve the best results. Financially solvent families tend to encourage their daughters to pursue higher education, considering security issues and other necessities for the female students. This study clearly shows that most of the fathers of female students were service holders or businesspeople. It is also noteworthy that, in the current context of Bangladesh, farmers are increasingly encouraging their daughters to receive higher education, and the female students are achieving good academic results. In this academic session, female students performed much better than male students, with 11 female students securing a GPA of 3.50 or above.

Residence and Academic Achievements

Respondents usually lived in their own homes, university halls, messes, or rented houses, depending on their status and preferences. University halls, located on campus, provide the most suitable environment for study and help students achieve the best results. Residence therefore plays an important role in academic performance. Female students preferred halls for study opportunities and security reasons, and generally avoided messes. The table shows that most of the female respondents lived in halls and obtained good results. Male respondents who achieved the best results also tended to live in halls (Table 6).

Table 6: Analysis of the relations between academic achievements and residence of the respondents

Respondents usually lived in their own homes, university halls, messes, or rented houses, depending on their status and preferences. University halls, located on campus, provide the most suitable environment for study and help students achieve the best results. Residence therefore plays an important role in academic performance. Female students preferred halls for study opportunities and security reasons, and generally avoided messes. The table shows that most of the female respondents lived in halls and obtained good results. Male respondents who achieved the best results also tended to live in halls.

Monthly Expenditure and Academic Achievements

Table 7: Analysis of the relations between academic achievements and expenditure of the respondents

Most of the respondents lived in halls, which helped them to save money and maintain their living expenses between 4,000 and 8,000 taka per month. There was a little difference between male and female students in this regard. The average monthly expenditure of the male students is about 4436 taka, and the average monthly expenditure of the female students is about 4656 taka.

Sources of Expenditure

Data shows that most of the male respondents covered their monthly expenses with money received from their fathers. Some were involved in private tuition to meet study-related challenges. On the other hand, most of the female respondents received money from both father and mother, with fewer engaged in private tuition due to its scarcity in Rajshahi.

Table 8: Analysis of the sources of expenditure of the respondents

Taking multiple answers

Preparation of Examination of the Respondents

Examinations are held twice (midterm and final) per semester, with two semesters per year. In the last semester of the respective year, a seminar presentation is required, and groups are formed after the second semester begins. Respondents showed varied approaches to exam preparation: studying in advance, using course-based notes and internet materials, following class lectures, seeking teacher guidance, and studying whenever interested. Serious students studied regularly and attentively, used the seminar library, followed the syllabus, and worked intensively. Very few were inattentive or irregular due to psychological pressure or frustration with results. A small number of the respondents provided no comments on their preparation.

Opinions for the Development of the Students

Respondents offered suggestions for the students’ development. Male students emphasized careful time management, completing study activities on time, maintaining continuity in studies, ensuring physical and psychological fitness, acquiring practical skills, providing quality education, developing a strong curriculum, mentoring freshers’, offering financial support to poor students, teaching ICT skills, focusing on career development, identifying students’ problems, reducing academic pressure, and encouraging practical activities.

Female students suggested hard work, regular and attentive study, reduced mobile phone use, effective time management, creating a friendly study environment, caring for psychological and physical health, arranging service-based learning and training, conducting educational research, organizing seminars and workshops for career development, building moral and ethical qualities, goal-oriented planning, including practical alongside theoretical knowledge, ensuring a safe education environment, reducing social media distraction, promoting effective learning over pressure, contributing to national welfare, developing mentality and additional skills, reducing corruption and disparity, and participating in extracurricular activities. These opinions from respondents can significantly help students to improve their studies and future careers.

Conclusion

Distinct differences are evident in the activities of the respondents when centred on academic performance. In terms of daily time allocation, female students spend more time attending classes, studying, and sleeping compared to the male students. Conversely, male students devote more time to mobile phone usage, social media, and gossiping than their female counterparts. With regard to study hours, female students allocate significantly more time to studying during the early morning, morning, noon, afternoon, and evening periods compared to the male students. Male students, however, tend to spend more time studying at night. Although female students generally achieve better examination results than male students, they perceive academic tasks as more stressful than do their male counterparts. Many female respondents even describe studying as painful. The occupational status of the fathers of the female students is generally higher than that of the male students. This factor contributes to the best academic performance of the female students. The majority of the respondents reside in university halls of residence. Compared to those living in other accommodations, hall residents demonstrate better examination results. In terms of monthly expenditure, the female students incur higher amounts than the male students, which plays a positive role in facilitating their better academic outcomes. A greater diversity of funding sources for these expenditures is observed among the female students compared to the male students. Effective examination preparation plays a crucial role in achieving good academic results. In this regard, the female students make greater efforts to prepare according to a structured and proper plan compared to the male students.

Policy Recommendation

The measures that can be taken to ensure students' best academic performance and future success include: studying in a timely and disciplined manner, acquiring practical life-oriented activities and skills, arranging mentoring programs for the newly admitted students, reducing mobile phone usage, focusing on effective time management, and ensuring the provision of quality education for the students.