1. Introduction

In 1666, Isaac Newton formulated the law of universal gravitation ^[1] after observing an apple fall from a tree. Later, in 1687, he published his three laws of motion ^[2] in Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica.

By 1675, Newton had already developed the essential concepts of gravitation, the laws of motion, and calculus. In a letter to Robert Hooke, he wrote the now-famous words:

“If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.”

More than three centuries later, physics continues to build upon Newton’s work. This paper proposes that several further implications of Newton’s concept of inertia remain unexplored. By re-examining inertia and its relationship to energy, gravity, motion and heat, a unity model is proposed for understanding the formation and evolution of matter and the universe.

2. Inertia-at-Rest Produces Weight and Unity

Newton’s first law describes inertia as the natural tendency of an object to maintain its state of motion or rest unless acted upon by an external force ^[2].

Newton’s third law states that every action is accompanied by an equal and opposite reaction ^[2].

1. Newton therefore identified inertia as a natural tendency that has two states: inertia at rest and inertia in motion.

2. That is, matter expresses its natural tendency inertia as two intrinsic forces:

   • inertia-at-rest ($Ir$) and

   • inertia-in-motion ($Im$)

3. As forces are vectors with directions, every particle within a group exerts its $Ir$ on every other particle, toward itself (to be precise, toward its centre), as a constant pull, and is pulled by them in return (according to Newton’s third law), resulting in a concentrating pulling force (joint $Ir$) of the group, directed toward the centre of the group.

4. Therefore, each particle’s $Ir$ is a contribution to the joint $Ir$ of the group, manifesting as its weight (W) or gravity (F):

   $$\begin{array}{}\text{(}\text{1}\text{)}& W=F=Ir\end{array}$$

5. A group of particles combined by a concentrating pulling force (joint $Ir$) is termed a unity, where:

   • Each constituent particle is a unity member.

   • Each member joins or contributes its $Ir$ to the concentrating pulling force of the unity.

   • The most contributed member naturally becomes the unity centre.

6. This process is hierarchical. A unity may itself become a member of a larger unity, resulting in a nested structure of increasing scale. Thus, atoms, planets, stars, and galaxies can all be interpreted as unities within larger unities.

7. The above statements constitute the main part of the unity model. Examples or demonstrations:

   • Within an atom, electrons and the nucleus contribute to a concentrating pulling force of the atom unity.

   • Within the Moon, atom unities contribute to a concentrating pulling force of the Moon unity.

   • Within Earth, subordinate unities, including the Moon unity, contribute to a concentrating pulling force of the Earth unity.

   • In each case, the most contributed member naturally becomes the unity centre: the nucleus, the Moon itself, and the Earth itself.

3. Inertia-at-Rest Produces Weight or Gravity

As identified above, matter’s weight (W) or gravity (F) is from its pulling force of inertia-at-rest ($Ir$): $W=F=Ir$, toward its unity centre, as a unity member sharing its $Ir$ to the joint $Ir$ of the unity.

Therefore, the fundamental way to measure a unity member’s weight (W) or gravity (F) is to break its $Ir$ with a minimum pushing force of inertia-in-motion ($I{m}_1$) — the Breaking-point Method:

3.1. Measurement on Earth

When a weighing scale supports an object in equilibrium, it applies the minimum pushing force ($I{m}_1$) required to balance the object’s $Ir$. Under calibrated conditions, the measured value represents the object’s weight or gravity:

3.2. Continuous Matter

For continuous materials such as air, water, and soil, weight may be measured per unit area (A) or per unit volume (V). Examples include:

• Pressure: $P=W/A$

• Unit weight: $W_u=W/V$

3.3. Atomic Scale

At the atomic scale, the minimum electronic flow ($I{m}_1$) required to break an electron from an atom unity measures that electron’s $Ir$ or W or F:

3.4. Planetary Systems

In larger unities, such as the Earth unity or the Sun unity, orbital equilibrium results from a balance between the pulling force $Ir$ of an orbiting unity and the pushing forces of heat ($Im$) from the unity centre, so that the heat transfer on the orbiting unity ($I{m}_1$) measures the orbiting unity’s $Ir$ or W or F:

4. Inertia-at-Rest Produces Gravity

Newton’s law of universal gravitation ^[1] states that every particle attracts every other particle with a force:

where $G$ is the gravitational constant, $M_1$ and $M_2$ are masses, and $R$ is the distance between them. Although Newton successfully described the relationship mathematically, he did not know the source or mechanism of the gravitational attraction.

The unity model identifies the source and mechanism of gravity ($F$) or weight ($W$) as the pulling force of inertia-at-rest ($Ir$), which is a share of the concentrating pulling force of the unity, toward the unity centre:

Therefore, gravity is not an independent force but the expression of inertia-at-rest within a unity.

An Alternative Empirical Equation

When direct measurement by the Breaking-point Method is impractical, an empirical estimate of gravity may be obtained through the mass and distance relationship:

where:

• $F$ is the pulling force (gravity, weight, or inertia-at-rest),

• $P$ is the pulling constant,

• $M_1$ is the mass of the unity member (for example, Earth unity including the nested Moon unity),

• $M_2$ is the mass of the unity centre (for example, the Sun itself),

• $R$ is the distance between their centres.

If masses are measured in kilograms (kg) and distance in metres (m), $P$ has dimensions of metres per kilogram (m/kg), so that $F$ is in kg.

In this empirical equation, determination of $P$ requires observational data.

5. Forces Come from Energy

All forces originate from energy. According to my previous work ^{[3, 4, 5, 6]}, a force is a measurable vector that transfers and manifests scalar energy, and energy is a property of matter, not a physical entity.

Because matter expresses itself through two intrinsic forces — inertia-at-rest ($Ir$) and inertia-in-motion ($Im$) — it follows that there are two corresponding forms of energy.

1. The energy producing pulling force — inertia-at-rest ($Ir$), is termed sharing-energy ($Es$), because it is shared with other $Es$ to produce the concentrating pulling force of the unity.

2. The energy producing pushing force — inertia-in-motion ($Im$), is termed excess-energy ($Ee$), because it is the energy of free particles that are released as heat to maintain the unity.

Thus:

• Sharing-energy ($Es$) produces inertia-at-rest ($Ir$).

• Excess-energy ($Ee$) produces inertia-in-motion ($Im$).

6. Inertia-at-Rest and Inertia-in-Motion Cause Transitions Between Equilibriums

Newton’s second law states that the change in an object’s motion is proportional to the force acting upon it and occurs in the direction of that force ^[2]. In modern notation:

• Motion is quantified as momentum $p=mv$, where $m$ is the mass, $v$ is the velocity of the object.

• The force $F=m(dv/dt)=ma$, where $m$ is the mass, $dv/dt$ is the time derivative of the velocity, which is the acceleration ($a$).

Building upon these concepts, this paper proposes that inertia-at-rest ($Ir$) and inertia-in-motion ($Im$) cause transitions between equilibrium states.

6.1. Initial Equilibrium

Consider an object as a unity member in its initial equilibrium, contributing its initial inertia-at-rest $I{r}_1$ with its source sharing-energy $E{s}_1$ to the concentrating pulling force, which can be measured as its weight ($W_1$) or gravity ($F_1$):

6.2. Transition to Motion

When acted upon by a sufficient external $Im$:

the unity member leaves its equilibrium state and becomes a free particle carrying initial $I{m}_i$.

Its subsequent motion is determined by the net force of its $Ir$ and $Im$. Unless both forces direct to its hierarchical unity centre, the particle follows a curved trajectory toward the unity centre, because the $Ir$ always directs to the unity centre.

6.3. Motion and Friction

As the particle moves along the curved trajectory toward its unity centre, it collides with other particles.

Each collision alters the particle’s momentum ($mv$) and transfers part of its $Im$ to the colliding particle, producing a friction or heat:

6.4. Ending Equilibrium

After transferring all its $Im$: $Im=0$, the particle reaches its ending equilibrium, as close as it can be to the unity centre, and again becomes a unity member, with its ending inertia-at-rest $I{r}_2$ and its source sharing-energy $E{s}_2$, that can be measured by its ending weight ($W_2$) or gravity ($F_2$):

6.5. Potential Energy

The energy difference between the initial equilibrium and the ending equilibrium is defined as potential energy ($Ep$).

1. a) From the initial action, the object’s potential energy ($Ep$) plus its initial $I{m}_i$, can be expressed as:

   $$\begin{array}{}\text{(}\text{13}\text{)}& Ep+I{m}_i=F=ma\end{array}$$

   If the object is simply dropped from a height, with $I{m}_i=0$, then:

   $$\begin{array}{}\text{(}\text{14}\text{)}& Ep=F=ma\end{array}$$

   That is, matter releases its potential energy as a free fall toward its unity centre, due to its $Ir$.

2. b) In the free fall, the object converts its $Ep$ to $Es$ (the source energy of $Ir$), which in turn converts to $Ee$ (the source energy of $Im$), and collides with other particles, changing its velocity and producing heat ($H$):

   $$\begin{array}{}\text{(}\text{15}\text{)}& Ep\to Es\to Ee=Im=H\end{array}$$

3. c) In the ending equilibrium, whatever left of the $Ep$ becomes the increased sharing-energy: $\mathrm{\Delta }Es=E{s}_2-E{s}_1$, which can be measured by increased weight $\mathrm{\Delta }W=W_2-W_1$ or increased gravity $\mathrm{\Delta }F=F_2-F_1$:

   $$\begin{array}{}\text{(}\text{16}\text{)}& \mathrm{\Delta }Es=\mathrm{\Delta }W=\mathrm{\Delta }F\end{array}$$

4. d) That is, $Ep$ can be regarded as matter’s unrealised sharing-energy. In the process of realising its $Ep$ to $\mathrm{\Delta }Es$, matter must spend some of the $Ep$ on frictions (collisions), producing heat ($H=Im$), while converting the $Ep$ to $\mathrm{\Delta }Es$:

   $$\begin{array}{}\text{(}\text{17}\text{)}& Ep=Im+\mathrm{\Delta }Es,whereIm=Ee\end{array}$$

5. e) Matter farther from its unity centre therefore possesses a greater amount of unrealised sharing-energy ($Ep$) than it would be closer to a unity centre.

6. f) Matter realises its $\mathrm{\Delta }Es$ progressively approaching its unity centre, until all its $Es$ is realised in the unity centre, which, in a bigger nesting unity, also means a nuclear fusion centre, such as the Sun.

7. g) Therefore, the energy version of the unity model: matter retains its internal intrinsic $Es$ and its $Ep$ in a nested unity as a unity member until being pushed out by an external excess-energy ($Ee$) as a free particle with $Ee$, to transfer the $Ee$ as heat. After transferring all its $Ee$, it rejoins a unity, sharing its $Es$ for the concentrating pulling force of the unity, once again as a unity member.

8. h) That is, matter moves to form and maintain its unity, relative to its unity centre, which serves as its reference point, thereby nullifying the basis of the observational reference frame and relativity ^{[3, 4, 5]}.

7. Inertia-in-Motion is Heat From Excess-Energy

According to Newton’s first law, matter changes from inertia at rest to inertia in motion when acted upon by a sufficient force.

1. When a unity member possessing inertia-at-rest ($Ir$) is acted upon by a sufficient external force of inertia-in-motion ($Im\ge Ir$), its state changes from inertia at rest to inertia in motion, becoming a free particle with $Im$.

2. As the $Im$ is an outward pushing force, with countless vector directions to quantify, its source excess-energy ($Ee$) is scalar.

3. The free particle moves along the net force of its $Ir$ and $Im$. Suppose the particle has a stronger $Ee$ (for example, $E{e}^{+3}$) and collides with another particle with a weaker $Ee$ (for example, $E{e}^{+1}$), and equalises its $Ee$ with the other’s $Ee$:

   $$\begin{array}{}\text{(}\text{18}\text{)}& E{e}^{+3}+E{e}^{+1}\to E{e}^{+2}+E{e}^{+2}\end{array}$$

   thus, transfers its $Ee$ as heat ^[4] (Newton’s third law is also in effect).

4. Following the collision, both particles continue to transfer their respective $Ee$ to other particles, resulting in radiation ^{[4, 5]}.

5. Smaller particles transfer heat more readily because of their lower mass:

   • Nearly massless free photons (${\gamma }^{+}$) and free neutrinos ($v^{+}$) are therefore the most efficient heat-transfer particles. Free photons constitute photonic heat ^{[4, 5]}.

   • Free electrons ($e^{+}$) are the next most efficient heat carriers and constitute electronic heat ^{[4, 5]}.

   • Gas particles (such as ${\text{H}}_2$, $\text{He}$, ${\text{N}}_2$, ${\text{O}}_2$, and ${\text{CO}}_2$) and liquid molecules (such as ${\text{H}}_2\text{O}$) transfer atomic and molecular heat ^{[4, 5]}.

6. In solids, heat is transferred through both the atoms and their outermost electrons:

   • When atoms in a solid are struck by external atomic heat particles:

     • The atoms equalise their $Ee$ ($Ee\to Ee$).

     • If the external heat exceeds the material’s melting point, heat transfer continues in the liquid state.

   • When the outermost electrons of solid atoms are struck by external electronic heat particles ($e^{+}$):

     • If the electrons can be freed easily, as in good electronic conductors, the heat transfer becomes an electronic current.

     • Otherwise, the heat transfer occurs among atoms in the material.

   • When the outermost electrons are struck by external photonic heat particles (${\gamma }^{+}$):

     • If the electrons can be freed easily, as in photovoltaic materials, the heat transfer becomes an electronic current.

     • Otherwise, the heat transfer occurs among atoms in the material.

7. After transferring all its $Ee$ ($Ee=0$), each particle rejoins a unity, contributing its $Ir$ to the concentrating pulling force of the unity, once again becoming a unity member. Examples include:

   • An electron rejoining an atom that has previously lost an electron.

   • A photon rejoining an electron: $\gamma +e\to e\gamma$.

   • A neutrino rejoining a proton: $v+p\to pv$.

   • A gas or liquid particle moving closer to the centre of its planetary unity.

So, I summarise and propose:

1. Inertia-in-motion ($Im$) is the pushing force of a free particle.

2. With sufficient $Im$ ($Im\ge Ir$), the free particle can push or collide a unity member with inertia-at-rest ($Ir$) into a new free particle with $Im$.

3. The newly freed particle moves along the net force of its $Ir$ and $Im$ and collides with another particle while equalising each other’s source $Ee$, causing subsequent heat transfer or radiation.

4. After transferring all its $Ee$, each particle rejoins a unity, contributing its $Ir$ to the concentrating pulling force of the unity, once again as a unity member.

5. Therefore, heat is redefined as the $Im$ expressed by these free particles’ $Ee$ ^{[4, 5]}.

6. Radiation is redefined and generalised as heat transfer, by a free particle colliding with another particle while equalising each other’s $Ee$ ($Ee\to Ee$) ^{[4, 5]}.

8. Atomic and Molecular Heat

1. Atomic and molecular heat is $Im$ expressed by free gas or liquid particles’ $Ee$. For example:

   • The free air particles of the wind transfer their $Ee$ to our body, changing our body temperature.

   • The synchronised free and hot air particles from a combustion chamber transfer their $Ee$ to the engine.

   • The free water molecules in a flowing river transfer their $Ee$ to turbines connected to generators, producing electricity.

2. Atomic and molecular heat can be transferred from other kinds of free particles: $Ee\to Ee$. For example:

   • From photonic heat, like sunshine.

   • From electronic heat, like an electronic heater.

3. Heat Transfer Rate:

   • In the International System of Units (SI), heat ($Im$) is measured in joules (J).

   • The rate of heat transfer is measured in watts (W): $1\text{ W}=1\text{ J/s}$.

   • Heat flux is defined as heat transfer per unit area and is commonly measured in watts per square metre (${\text{W/m}}^2$).

4. Temperature Measurement:

   • In meteorology and climate science, heat transfer is frequently measured through temperature and wind conditions.

   • One of the most common instruments for measuring temperature is the glass thermometer, consisting of a glass tube filled with mercury or some other liquid.

   • Temperature change causes the volume change of the liquid: the ambient free particles transfer their $Ee$ by colliding while equalising their $Ee$ with the liquid particles through the glass tube, changing each particle’s motion space (a particle with stronger $Ee$ pushes harder), causing volume change of the liquid.

   • Temperature is therefore determined by measuring the resulting volume change, typically indicated by the height of the liquid column within the thermometer.

9. Electronic Heat

According to the unity model and my previous work ^{[4, 5]}:

1. An electron ($e$) and a photon ($\gamma$) normally join their $Ir$ into a concentrating pulling force of an electron unity ($e\gamma$), with the more contributed electron as the unity centre.

2. The electron unity ($e\gamma$) in turn joins or contributes its $Ir$ to the concentrating pulling force of an atom unity, as a nested member, orbiting the most contributed (hence centred) nuclear unity.

3. When an external sufficient $Im$ ($Im\ge Ir$) pushes the nested member ($e\gamma$), the member becomes a free electron unity $(e\gamma {)}^{+}$ with pushing force $Im$ as heat. Then the $(e\gamma {)}^{+}$ usually breaks apart, producing heat and invisible light:

   $$\begin{array}{}\text{(}\text{19}\text{)}& (e\gamma {)}^{+}\to e+{\gamma }^{+}\end{array}$$

   If the external $Im$ pushes harder, the member becomes a stronger free electron unity $(e\gamma {)}^{++}$ with pushing force $Im$ as heat. Then the $(e\gamma {)}^{++}$ breaks apart, producing more heat and visible light:

   $$\begin{array}{}\text{(}\text{20}\text{)}& (e\gamma {)}^{++}\to e^{+}+{\gamma }^{+}\end{array}$$

4. Therefore, electric charge and electricity are redefined as electronic heat — the pushing force $Im$ of free electron unities and the pulling force $Ir$ of the respective atom unities, negating the currently generalised concept of electric charge ^[7].

5. An electric field is therefore redefined as an electronic field ^{[4, 5]}, consisting of circling electron unities along the pushing direction.

6. The circling electron unities in an electronic field transfer heat, producing magnetic effects, including the motor effect. When two electronic fields approach one another:

   • If their circling directions are similar, they attract and merge into one: the electron unities with stronger $Ee$ bump the electron unities with weaker $Ee$ into the same direction and energy level, releasing their bonding photons as weak and invisible light: $(e\gamma {)}^{+}\to e+{\gamma }^{+}$.

   • If their circling directions oppose one another, they repel until clash into one: the electron unities from one field collide with the electron unities from the other field, releasing their bonding photons as strong and visible light: $(e\gamma {)}^{++}\to e^{+}+{\gamma }^{+}$ (such as a lightning).

   • That is, when two electronic fields are in proximity, heat transfer ($Ee\to Ee$) causes attraction or repulsion depending on the rotational alignment of their circling electron unities.

   • The pushing force of electronic heat, with the resulting phenomena, is termed electronism ^{[4, 5, 6]}, replacing the current concepts of magnetism and electromagnetism.

7. A star, such as the Sun, has the biggest and the strongest electronic field in a stellar unity. The enormous high-energy free electrons ($e^{+3}$ or positrons) released from its nuclear fusion centre collide with outside electron unities ($e\gamma$), producing light (${\gamma }^{+}$) and more free electrons ($e^{+}$):

   $$\begin{array}{}\text{(}\text{21}\text{)}& e^{+3}+(e\gamma )\to {\gamma }^{+}+2e^{+}\end{array}$$

   The released light and heat continue to transfer heat ($Ee$) as the star’s pushing force $Im$.

8. The Earth also has an electronic field:

   1. The heat transferred from the Sun to the atmosphere of Earth produces abundant free electrons.

   2. In the centre of Earth, beta decays and nuclear fissions ^[4] produce numerous high-energy free electrons, although most of them transfer their $Ee$ to atomic and molecular heat in the centre.

   3. On the surface of Earth, beta decays produce abundant high-energy free electrons.

   4. On the surface of Earth, the three “magnetic” elements with electrons per shell:

      • Iron, ${}_{26}\text{Fe}$: 2, 8, 14, 2.

      • Cobalt, ${}_{27}\text{Co}$: 2, 8, 15, 2.

      • Nickel, ${}_{28}\text{Ni}$: 2, 8, 16, 2.

      • Each of these elements possesses two outermost electrons, one of which is easily freed through a collision, for example:

        • with a free photon: $e+{\gamma }^{+}\to (e\gamma {)}^{+}$

        • with a free electron: $e+e^{++}\to 2e^{+}$

        to join the surrounding electronic field. See Figure 1.

   5. All these free electrons with $Im$ push in the same direction while transferring heat, forming many small and local circling electronic fields, becoming the building blocks for the circling electronic field of Earth.

1. Therefore, there are no such things as “magnetic field” and “magnetism”. Any “magnetic field” or “electromagnetic field” is an electronic field ^{[4, 5, 6]}.

2. Measurement of Electronic Heat Transfer:

   1. The electronic heat ($Im$) is also measured in J, and the transfer rate is measured in watts (W): $1\text{ W}=1\text{ A}\times 1\text{ V}=1\text{ J/s}$, with the following proof ^[8]:

      • The ampere (A) is the base unit of electronic current in the International System of Units (SI). $1\text{ A}$ represents a flow of $1\text{ coulomb}$ ($C\approx 6.24\times {10}^{18}$) electrons per second: $1\text{ A}=1\text{ C/s}$.

      • A volt is defined as one joule of heat per coulomb: $1\text{ V}=1\text{ J/C}$.

      • Therefore, $1\text{ W}=1\text{ C/s}\times 1\text{ J/C}=1\text{ J/s}$.

   2. That is, $1\text{ W}=1\text{ J/s}$ can be used to measure heat transfer by any free particles, such as electrons, photons, wind, steam or flowing water.

   3. Devices with relatively low power requirements are typically rated in watts, while larger systems are rated in kilowatts or higher:

      • $1\text{ kW}=1000\text{ W}$

      • $1\text{ MW}=1000\text{ kW}$

      • $1\text{ GW}=1000\text{ MW}$

   4. Electronic Heat Transfer Over Time:

      • The accumulated transfer of electronic heat is commonly measured using watt-hours (Wh). One watt-hour represents the transfer of one watt sustained for one hour.

      • For practical applications, usage is generally measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh), which quantifies the total amount of electronic heat transferred through a circuit over time.

10. Photonic Heat

According to the unity model and my previous work ^{[4, 5, 6]}, light is redefined as photonic heat. More precisely, light is the heat ($Im$) of free photons.

1. A photon ($\gamma$) and an electron ($e$) normally contribute their $Ir$ to a concentrating pulling force of an electron unity ($e\gamma$), with the less contributed photon orbiting the more contributed electron.

2. The minimum pushing force ($I{m}_1$) a photon requires to break free of its electron measures its $Ir$ or gravity ($F$) or weight ($W$) in its electron unity:

   $$\begin{array}{}\text{(}\text{22}\text{)}& F=W=Ir=I{m}_1\end{array}$$

3. When pushed by a sufficient $Im$ ($Im\ge Ir$), the photon oscillates away as a free photon with the source excess-energy ($Ee$), in waves. The stronger the $Ee$, the higher the frequency ($f$) of the waves, with the cause-effect equation:

   $$\begin{array}{}\text{(}\text{23}\text{)}& Ee=hf\end{array}$$

   where $h$ is the Planck constant ^[9].

4. Upon generation, the free photon (${\gamma }^{+}$) transfers its excess-energy ($Ee$) as heat through particle collisions — experiencing velocity shifts such as reflections and deflections — until its excess-energy is fully depleted ($Ee=0$) and it is reabsorbed by an electron to form an electron unity ($\gamma +e\to e\gamma$).

5. When the free photons strike the retinas of our eyes, their different $Ee$ within a certain energy range are interpreted (perceived) by our brains as the respective colours. The free photons outside the energy range, for example, gamma rays, X-rays, or radio waves, which cannot be interpreted by our brains, require specialised instruments or devices for  our recognition.

6. Measurement of Photonic Heat:

   • As stated before, W or J/s can be used to measure heat transfer by any free particles, including free photons.

   • Hence, it measures luminosity ^[10] — the free particles released as heat by astronomical objects such as stars in galaxies.

   • Historically, the standard candle ^[11] served as a practical reference for comparing light output and is now widely used in astronomical distance estimation.

   • The mole is the SI base unit for the amount of substance: $1\text{ mole}=6.022\times {10}^{23}$ elementary entities. Accordingly, $1\text{ mole of light}=6.022\times {10}^{23}\text{ photons}$.

7. The Formation of a Quantum

   • Current physics defines a quantum ^[12] as the minimum discrete quantity involved in a physical interaction.

   • The unity model describes the formation of a quantum: when matter possessing sharing-energy ($Es$) is displaced from its unity by a sufficient external excess-energy ($Ee\ge Es$), it becomes a free particle with $Ee$, to transfer the $Ee$ through collisions with other particles.

   • That is, only free particles are involved in physical interactions.

   • A particle must first overcome its $Es$ to become free, hence the discrete quantity.

   • Once this threshold is crossed, the particle may possess continuous values of $Ee$ rather than discrete multiples of $Es$.

   • No additional threshold exists that would require subsequent “quantum leaps”. However, an effective interaction (collision) does require sufficient energy ($Ee$). In this sense, quantisation is still valid.

   • Therefore, a quantum is redefined as a free particle possessing an initial $Ee$ equal to or greater than its $Es$ or gravity and requiring sufficient $Ee$ to transfer heat effectively ^{[3, 4]}.

11. Heat Transfer — Electric Generator

1. According to current physics, an electric generator ^[13] converts mechanical energy (motion) into electrical energy. It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction ^[14] proposed by Michael Faraday, originally in 1831 and expanded in 1834, and mathematically described by James Clerk Maxwell as Faraday’s law of induction.

2. Faraday’s law was later generalised into the Maxwell-Faraday equation, one of the four Maxwell equations in his theory of electromagnetism ^[14].

3. According to Albert Einstein, much of the groundwork and discovery of his special relativity theory was presented by this law of induction by Faraday ^[14].

4. According to the unity model, the demonstrations in the section of Electronic Heat, and my previous work ^{[4, 5, 6]}, any “magnetic or electromagnetic field” is an electronic field, nullifying the basis of Faraday’s electromagnetic induction, Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism, and Einstein’s special relativity ^[4].

As another demonstration, the following are comparisons of the Magnetic (M) and the Electronic (E) theories ^[4] of an electric generator:

• (M) When a wire (conductor) moves through a rotating magnetic field, the magnetic force “pushes” the electrons inside the wire, creating a flow of electricity. A generator essentially forces these electrons through an external circuit to power devices.

• (E) When a wire (conductor, for example, made of copper Cu) moves through a rotating electronic field, the energised electron unities ($e\gamma$) collide with and break free the outermost electrons of the wire (Cu) atoms, transferring their $Ee$ as heat to the newly freed electrons, producing an electronic current that continues the heat transfer (radiation) along the wire.

11.1. Main Components

1. Rotor: The rotating component of the machine containing magnets or electromagnets that generate:

   (M) a rotating magnetic field.

   (E) a rotating electronic field with energised circling electron unities, see Figure 1.

2. Stator: The stationary component containing conductive coils.

   (M) The rotating magnetic field passes through the coils and induces a current.

   (E) The energised electron unities break free the outermost electrons from the coil atoms and transfer their $Ee$, producing a current.

11.2. Operating Process

1. Energy Input: An external heat source is required to maintain rotor motion. Examples include:

   • Fossil-fuel combustion

   • Nuclear fission

   • Hydroelectric power

   • Wind power

   • Geothermal energy

2. The Rotational Motion:

   (M) rotates a magnetic field.

   (E) rotates an electronic field with energised electron unities.

3. Electronic Output

   (M) The changing magnetic field induces a voltage and current in the stator coils.

   (E) The energised electron unities break free and energise the outermost electrons of the coil atoms, producing a current in the coils.

From this perspective, the device does not generate electricity but transfers other heat sources to electronic heat. Therefore, electric transferor ^[4] is proposed to replace the term electric generator.

Two examples or applications of the electric transferor follow.

12. Heat Transfer — Hydroelectricity

Hydroelectricity comes from the potential energy ($Ep$) of water molecules transferred from the $Ee$ of sunlight or photonic heat ($Ee\to Ep$).

As the water flows down by its $Es$ with Earth, converting the $Ep$ to $Ee$: $Ep\to Es\to Ee$, turning turbines connected to generators (transferors), the $Ee$ from the water molecules is transferred to $Ee$ of electrons, which is electricity.

12.1. Water Source

Water molecules evaporated by the photonic heat ($Ee$ of sunlight) and deposited at a higher elevation have potential energy ($Ep$): $Ee\to Ep$. Examples include:

• Melting snow or reservoirs on mountains

• Lakes at high elevations

12.2. Turbine

As water descends from the higher elevation, its $Ep$ is transformed into $Ee$:

The $Ee$ of flowing water rotates the turbine blades, transferring the $Ee$ to the rotating system.

12.3. Electric Transferor

The rotating turbine drives an electric transferor, transferring the $Ee$ of the rotating system to the $Ee$ of electrons (electricity): $Ee\to Ee$.

The resulting electronic heat is then distributed through electronic transmission systems.

Therefore, hydroelectricity is represented as the following energy flow:

$Ee$ (sunlight) $\to Ep$ (elevated water) $\to Ee$ (flowing water) $\to Ee$ (turbine rotation) $\to Ee$ (electronic heat).

13. Heat Transfer — Wind Energy

The $Ee$ of air particles ($Ee$ of wind), transferred from the $Ee$ of sunlight (photonic heat), turns wind turbines connected to generators (transferors), transferring the $Ee$ from the wind to the $Ee$ of electrons (electricity): $Ee\to Ee$, as Wind energy.

13.1. Wind

Air particles absorb $Ee$ from photonic heat ($Ee$ of sunlight) and from the surface of Earth: $Ee\to Ee$, producing wind.

13.2. Turbine

As the $Ee$ of wind pushes the blades of a wind turbine, it rotates the rotor of the turbine, transferring the $Ee$ to the rotating system.

13.3. Electric Transferor

The rotating turbine drives an electric transferor, transferring the $Ee$ of the rotating system to the $Ee$ of electrons (electricity): $Ee\to Ee$.

The resulting electronic heat is distributed through electronic transmission systems.

Therefore, wind power is represented as the following energy flow:

$Ee$ (sunlight) $\to Ee$ (air particles) $\to Ee$ (turbine rotation) $\to Ee$ (electronic heat).

14. Heat Transfer — Electric Motor

1. According to current physics, an electric motor ^[15] operates on the fundamental principle of electromagnetism, converting electrical energy into mechanical energy.

2. According to the unity model, the demonstrations in the section of Electronic Heat, and my previous work ^{[4, 5, 6]}, any “magnetic or electromagnetic field” is an electronic field.

As another demonstration, the following are comparisons of the Magnetic (M) and the Electronic (E) theories of an electric motor:

• (M) The core mechanism relies on the motor effect ^[16], which dictates that a current-carrying conductor placed inside an external magnetic field experiences a physical pushing force. This interaction generates continuous torque, causing the motor’s shaft to spin and power machinery.

• (E) The core mechanism relies on heat transfer, which dictates that when two electronic fields are in proximity, heat transfer ($Ee\to Ee$) causes attraction or repulsion depending on the rotational alignment of their circling electron unities. This interaction generates continuous torque, causing the motor’s shaft to spin and power machinery.

14.1. Core Working Principles

• (M) The Motor Effect ^[16]: When electric current flows through a coil of wire, it creates its own temporary magnetic field. This temporary field interacts with the permanent magnetic field surrounding it.

• (E) The Heat Transfer: When electronic current flows through a coil of wire, it produces a temporary electronic field, which transfers heat with the permanent electronic field surrounding it.

• (M) Magnetic Attraction and Repulsion: Opposite magnetic poles attract each other, while matching poles repel. These continuous pulling and pushing force the internal coil to rotate.

• (E) Electronic Attraction and Repulsion: In heat transfer between two fields, similar electronic circling directions attract, whereas opposing circling directions repel. These continuous pulling and pushing force the internal coil to rotate.

14.2. Essential Components of a DC Motor

To keep a motor spinning seamlessly without jamming, four key parts work together ^[15]:

1. Stator: The stationary outer part containing permanent magnets that provide:

   (M) a fixed magnetic field.

   (E) a circling electronic field, see Figure 1.

2. Rotor: The inner rotating loop of wire that carries:

   (M) the electrical current that turns into an electromagnet.

   (E) the electronic current that produces another circling electronic field.

3. Split-Ring Commutator: A rotating ring split into segments that reverse the current’s direction every half-turn:

   (M) This flips the electromagnet’s poles at the perfect moment to maintain continuous rotation in one direction.

   (E) This flips the electrons’ circling directions at the perfect moment to maintain continuous rotation in one direction.

4. Brushes: Stationary carbon blocks that press against the spinning commutator to safely deliver electronic current from the power source.

15. Inertia-at-Rest and Inertia-in-Motion Form the Universe

Through the interaction of matter’s two intrinsic forces — inertia-at-rest ($Ir$) and inertia-in-motion ($Im$) — the formation and evolution of the universe can be described:

A particle normally exists as a unity member, joining its $Ir$ to the concentrating pulling force (joint $Ir$) of the unity. When acted upon by a sufficient external $Im$ ($Im\ge Ir$), the particle is displaced from the unity and becomes a free particle with $Im$. It then moves along the net force of its $Ir$ and $Im$, transferring the $Im$’s source $Ee$ through collisions with other particles. After exhausting its $Ee$, the particle rejoins a unity, contributing its $Ir$ to the concentrating pulling force of the unity, once again as a unity member.

According to this unity model, the universe develops through repeated cycles of unity formation, particle release as heat transfer, and reintegration. The sequence is outlined below.

15.1. Base Particles and Base Unities

The Big Bang from the singularity ^[17] have produced enormous nebulae composed of four base particles ^{[4, 5, 6]}:

• proton ($p$),

• electron ($e$),

• neutrino ($\nu$),

• photon ($\gamma$),

listed in descending order of mass.

Joining or contributing each other’s $Ir$ to a concentrating pulling force in an equilibrium:

• An electron and a photon form the smallest electron unity ($e\gamma$), with the more contributed electron as the unity centre, surrounded by the photon.

• A proton and a neutrino form the proton unity ($p\nu$), with the more contributed proton as the unity centre, surrounded by the neutrino.

These two unities, ($e\gamma$) and ($p\nu$), are designated base unities ^{[4, 5, 6]}.

15.2. Formation of Nuclear Fusion Centre

Within a primordial nebula, due to the extreme density and temperature from the Big Bang, and the concentrating pulling force (the joint $Ir$) of the nebula, the composing base unities of ($e\gamma$) and ($p\nu$) in the centre region began nuclear fusion, as soon as the conditions permit.