Microbial Induced Autoimmune Inflammation as a Cause of Mental Illness in Adolescents: A Case Series

Daniel A. Kinderlehrer; Nancy Brown

doi:10.34257/GJMRAVOL21IS1PG1

Microbial Induced Autoimmune Inflammation as a Cause of Mental Illness in Adolescents: A Case Series

Daniel A. Kinderlehrer *

Contact

Nancy Brown

Contact

Microbial Induced Autoimmune Inflammation as a Cause of Mental Illness in Adolescents: A Case Series

Article Fingerprint

ReserarchID

MR3ROK1

DOI
10.34257/GJMRAVOL21IS1PG1

Microbial Induced Autoimmune Inflammation as a Cause of Mental Illness in Adolescents: A Case Series Banner

Key Research Insights

Synthesized scholarly intelligence & interactive research assistant

This converted HTML version may contain rendering inconsistencies. Please refer to the PDF for the authoritative version, or click here to provide feedback.

Abstract

The incidence of mental health disorders in adolescents continues to rise. The cause of the increase in mental illness is multifactorial, including both environmental and biological causes. To investigate the latter, ten adolescents at a psychiatric residential treatment center in Colorado with the DSM-5 diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD), of whom seven were additionally diagnosed with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), were chosen at random for further serologic study. Testing revealed exposure to group A Streptococcus (GAS) in 3 of 10 (30%); Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (Bbsl) in 2 of 10 (20%); and Bartonella spp. in 3 of 10 (30%). In addition, 9 of 10 (90%) subjects had abnormal Cunningham Panels, which measures levels of antineuronal antibodies that have been associated with psychiatric disturbances. Given the degree of psychological dysfunction in these adolescents requiring intensive residential treatment, this case series lends support to the hypothesis that exposure to infectious agents may play a role, perhaps by autoimmune mechanisms, in the significant and ongoing rise in the rate of neuropsychiatric illness in adolescents. This preliminary report adds to this premise and requires further investigation.

References

108 Cites in Article

Reference Format

1. Jean Twenge,Thomas Joiner,Megan Rogers,Gabrielle Martin (2018). Increases in Depressive Symptoms, Suicide-Related Outcomes, and Suicide Rates Among U.S. Adolescents After 2010 and Links to Increased New Media Screen Time. Clinical Psychological Science, 6(1), 3-17.
2. Kathleen Merikangas,Jian-Ping He,Marcy Burstein,Sonja Swanson,Shelli Avenevoli,Lihong Cui,Corina Benjet,Katholiki Georgiades,Joel Swendsen (2010). Lifetime Prevalence of Mental Disorders in U.S. Adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication–Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(10), 980-989.
3. Sally Curtin,Matthew Garnett (2019). Suicide and Homicide Death Rates Among Youth and Young Adults Aged 10–24: United States, 2001–2021. NCHS Data Brief, 352.
4. Chandni Sheth,Erin Mcglade,Deborah Yurgelun-Todd (2017). Chronic Stress in Adolescents and Its Neurobiological and Psychopathological Consequences: An RDoC Perspective. Chronic Stress, 1
5. Gwen Fagala,Cindy Wigg (1992). Psychiatric Manifestations of Mercury Poisoning. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31(2), 306-311.
6. Jessica Jackson,William Eaton,Nicola Cascella,Alessio Fasano,Deanna Kelly (2012). Neurologic and Psychiatric Manifestations of Celiac Disease and Gluten Sensitivity. Psychiatric Quarterly, 83(1), 91-102.
7. G Placidi,M Boldrini,A Patronelli,E Fiore,L Chiovato,G Perugi,D Marazziti (1998). Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders in Thyroid Diseased Patients. Neuropsychobiology, 38(4), 222-225.
8. Michael Benros,Berit Waltoft,Merete Nordentoft,Søren Østergaard,William Eaton,Jesper Krogh,Preben Mortensen (2013). Autoimmune Diseases and Severe Infections as Risk Factors for Mood Disorders. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(8), 812.
9. Ole Köhler-Forsberg,Liselotte Petersen,Christiane Gasse,Preben Mortensen,Soren Dalsgaard,Robert Yolken,Ole Mors,Michael Benros (2019). A Nationwide Study in Denmark of the Association Between Treated Infections and the Subsequent Risk of Treated Mental Disorders in Children and Adolescents. JAMA Psychiatry, 76(3), 271.
10. Robert Bransfield (2018). Neuropsychiatric Lyme Borreliosis: An Overview with a Focus on a Specialty Psychiatrist’s Clinical Practice. Healthcare, 6(3), 104.
11. Robert Bransfield (2012). The Psychoimmunology of Lyme/Tick-Borne Diseases and its Association with Neuropsychiatric Symptoms. The Open Neurology Journal, 06(1), 88-93.
12. Brian Fallon,Jenifer Nields,Joseph Burrascano,Kenneth Liegner,Donato Delbene,Michael Liebowitz (1992). The neuropsychiatric manifestations of Lyme borreliosis. Psychiatric Quarterly, 63(1), 95-117.
13. B Fallon,J Nields (1994). Lyme disease: a neuropsychiatric illness. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151(11), 1571-1583.
14. Brian Fallon,Janice Kochevar,Andrea Gaito,Jenifer Nields (1998). THE UNDERDIAGNOSIS OF NEUROPSYCHIATRIC LYME DISEASE IN CHILDREN AND ADULTS. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 21(3), 693-703.
15. Robert Bransfield (2018). Aggressiveness, violence, homicidality, homicide, and Lyme disease. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, Volume 14, 693-713.
16. David Mattingley,Maju Koola (2015). Association of Lyme Disease and Schizoaffective Disorder, Bipolar Type: Is it Inflammation Mediated?. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 37(2), 243-246.
17. Rosalie Greenberg (2017). The Role of Infection and Immune Responsiveness in a Case of Treatment-Resistant Pediatric Bipolar Disorder. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 8
18. J Schaller,G Burkland,P Langhoff (2007). Do bartonella infections cause agitation, panic disorder, and treatment-resistant depression?. MedGenMed, 9(3), 54.
19. E Breitschwerdt,S Sontakke,S Hopkins (2012). Neurological Manifestations of Bartonellosis in Immunocompetent Patients: A Composite of Reports from 2005-2012. Journal of Neuroparasitology, 3, 1-15.
20. Jaroslav Flegr,Marek Preiss,Pavla Balátová (2018). Depressiveness and Neuroticism in Bartonella Seropositive and Seronegative Subjects—Preregistered Case-Controls Study. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 314.
21. Edward Breitschwerdt,Rosalie Greenberg,Ricardo Maggi,B Mozayeni,Allen Lewis,Julie Bradley (2019). Bartonella henselae Bloodstream Infection in a Boy With Pediatric Acute-Onset Neuropsychiatric Syndrome. Journal of Central Nervous System Disease, 11
22. Rosa Chiuri,Maria Matronola,Concetta Di Giulio,Laura Comegna,Francesco Chiarelli,Annalisa Blasetti (2013). Bartonella henselae Infection Associated with Autoimmune Thyroiditis in a Child. Hormone Research in Paediatrics, 79(3), 185-188.
23. A Van Audenhove,G Verhoef,W Peetermans,M Boogaerts,P Vandenberghe (2001). Autoimmune haemolytic anaemia triggered by Bartonella henselae infection: a case report. British Journal of Haematology, 115(4), 924-925.
24. M Tsukahara,H Tsuneoka,H Tateishi,K Fujita,M Uchida (2001). Bartonella Infection Associated with Systemic Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 32(1), e22-e23.
25. E Cozzani,E Cinotti,P Ameri,A Sofia,G Murialdo,A Parodi (2011). Onset of cutaneous vasculitis and exacerbation of IgA nephropathy after Bartonella henselae infection. Clinical and Experimental Dermatology, 37(3), 238-240.
26. Laszlo Hopp,Stephen Eppes (2004). Development of IgA nephritis following cat scratch disease in a 13-year-old boy. Pediatric Nephrology, 19(6), 682-684.
27. Michael Giladi,Eran Maman,Daphna Paran,Jacob Bickels,Doron Comaneshter,Boaz Avidor,Merav Varon‐graidy,Moshe Ephros,Shlomo Wientroub (2005). Cat‐scratch disease–associated arthropathy. Arthritis & Rheumatism, 52(11), 3611-3617.
28. Ricardo Maggi,B Mozayeni,Elizabeth Pultorak,Barbara Hegarty,Julie Bradley,Maria Correa,Edward Breitschwerdt (2012). Bartonellaspp. Bacteremia and Rheumatic Symptoms in Patients from Lyme Disease–endemic Region. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 18(5), 1919-1921.
29. Areum Durey,Hea Kwon,Jae-Hyoung Im,Sun Lee,Jihyeon Baek,Seung Han,Jae-Seung Kang,Jin-Soo Lee (2016). Bartonella henselae infection presenting with a picture of adult-onset Still's disease. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 46, 61-63.
30. B Stockmeyer,C Schoerner,P Frangou,T Moriabadi,D Heuss,T Harrer (2007). Chronic Vasculitis and Polyneuropathy due to Infection with Bartonella henselae. Infection, 35(2), 107-109.
31. Francesco Massei,Laura Gori,Grazia Taddeucci,Pierantonio Macchia,Giuseppe Maggiore (2006). BARTONELLA HENSELAE INFECTION ASSOCIATED WITH GUILLAIN-BARRÉ SYNDROME. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 25(1), 90-91.
32. Nandhakumar Balakrishnan,Marna Ericson,Ricardo Maggi,Edward Breitschwerdt (2016). Vasculitis, cerebral infarction and persistent Bartonella henselae infection in a child. Parasites & Vectors, 9(1), 254.
33. Emilio Palumbo,Cristiana Malorgio,Giuseppina Nasca,Alberto Siani,Maurizio Branchi,Gilberto Bonora (2008). Encefalite da Mycoplasma pneumoniae in un bambino immunocompetente. Recenti Progressi in Medicina, 99(6), 99-102.
34. Elia Ayoub,Jason Mcbride,Michael Schmiederer,Burt Anderson (2002). Role of Bartonella henselae in the etiology of Henoch-Schönlein purpura. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 21(1), 28-31.
35. Joan Robinson,Donald Spady,Errol Prasad,Dorothy Mccoll,Harvey Artsob (2005). Bartonella seropositivity in children with Henoch-Schonlein purpura. BMC Infectious Diseases, 5(1)
36. D Kinderlehrer (2020). Is Bartonella a Cause of Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis? A Case Study. Gastrointest. Disord, 2, 48-57.
37. Susan Swedo,Henrietta Leonard,Louise Kiessling (1994). Speculations on Antineuronal Antibody-Mediated Neuropsychiatric Disorders of Childhood. Pediatrics, 93(2), 323-326.
38. Susan Swedo,Jakob Seidlitz,Miro Kovacevic,M Latimer,Rebecca Hommer,Lorraine Lougee,Paul Grant (2015). Clinical Presentation of Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal infections in Research and Community Settings. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 25(1), 26-30.
39. Kiki Chang,Jennifer Frankovich,Michael Cooperstock,Madeleine Cunningham,M Latimer,Tanya Murphy,Mark Pasternack,Margo Thienemann,Kyle Williams,Jolan Walter,Susan Swedo (2015). Clinical Evaluation of Youth with Pediatric Acute-Onset Neuropsychiatric Syndrome (PANS): Recommendations from the 2013 PANS Consensus Conference. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 25(1), 3-13.
40. Jennifer Frankovich,Margo Thienemann,Sonal Rana,Kiki Chang (2015). Five Youth with Pediatric Acute-Onset Neuropsychiatric Syndrome of Differing Etiologies. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 25(1), 31-37.
41. G Tisi,M Marzolini,G Biffi (2017). Pediatric acute onset neuropsychiatric syndrome associated with Epstein-Barr infection in child with Noonan syndrome. Europ Psychiatry, 41(Supplement), 456.
42. Anthony Quinn,Stanley Kosanke,Vincent Fischetti,Stephen Factor,Madeleine Cunningham (2001). Induction of Autoimmune Valvular Heart Disease by Recombinant Streptococcal M Protein. Infection and Immunity, 69(6), 4072-4078.
43. Matthew Cusick,Jane Libbey,Robert Fujinami (2012). Molecular Mimicry as a Mechanism of Autoimmune Disease. Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology, 42(1), 102-111.
44. M Cunningham,C Cox (2016). Autoimmunity against dopamine receptors in neuropsychiatric and movement disorders: a review of Sydenham chorea and beyond. Acta Physiologica, 216(1), 90-100.
45. Carol Cox,Meenakshi Sharma,James Leckman,Jonathan Zuccolo,Amir Zuccolo,Abraham Kovoor,Susan Swedo,Madeleine Cunningham (2013). Brain Human Monoclonal Autoantibody from Sydenham Chorea Targets Dopaminergic Neurons in Transgenic Mice and Signals Dopamine D2 Receptor: Implications in Human Disease. The Journal of Immunology, 191(11), 5524-5541.
46. Lior Brimberg,Itai Benhar,Adita Mascaro-Blanco,Kathy Alvarez,Dafna Lotan,Christine Winter,Julia Klein,Allon Moses,Finn Somnier,James Leckman,Susan Swedo,Madeleine Cunningham,Daphna Joel (2012). Behavioral, Pharmacological, and Immunological Abnormalities after Streptococcal Exposure: A Novel Rat Model of Sydenham Chorea and Related Neuropsychiatric Disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology, 37(9), 2076-2087.
47. Christine Kirvan,Susan Swedo,Janet Heuser,Madeleine Cunningham (2003). Mimicry and autoantibody-mediated neuronal cell signaling in Sydenham chorea. Nature Medicine, 9(7), 914-920.
48. Christine Kirvan,Carol Cox,Susan Swedo,Madeleine Cunningham (2007). Tubulin Is a Neuronal Target of Autoantibodies in Sydenham’s Chorea. The Journal of Immunology, 178(11), 7412-7421.
49. Carol Cox,Amir Zuccolo,Erica Edwards,Adita Mascaro-Blanco,Kathy Alvarez,Julie Stoner,Kiki Chang,Madeleine Cunningham (2015). Antineuronal Antibodies in a Heterogeneous Group of Youth and Young Adults with Tics and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 25(1), 76-85.
50. Dwight Johnson,Roger Kurlan,James Leckman,Edward Kaplan (2010). The Human Immune Response to Streptococcal Extracellular Antigens: Clinical, Diagnostic, and Potential Pathogenetic Implications. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 50(4), 481-490.
51. Satoshi Fujikawa,Seiichi Kawakita,Nozomi Kosakai,Teiichi Oda,Masahiko Ohkuni,Yuichi Shiokawa,Nobuo Watanabe,Toshihiko Yamada (1982). Significance of anti-deoxyribonuclease-B (ADN-B) Determination in clinical practice. Japanese Circulation Journal, 46(11), 1180-1183.
52. Marie Murphy,Michael Pichichero (2002). Prospective Identification and Treatment of Children With Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorder Associated With Group A Streptococcal Infection (PANDAS). Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 156(4), 356.
53. S Engstrom,E Shoop,R Johnson (1995). Immunoblot interpretation criteria for serodiagnosis of early Lyme disease. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 33(2), 419-427.
54. Paul Fawcett,Carlos Rosé,Kathleen Gibney,Robert Doughty (1998). Comparison of Immunodot and Western Blot Assays for Diagnosing Lyme Borreliosis. Clinical Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology, 5(4), 503-506.
55. Song Liu,Iris Cruz,Catherine Ramos,Paula Taleon,Ranjan Ramasamy,Jyotsna Shah (2018). Pilot Study of Immunoblots with Recombinant Borrelia burgdorferi Antigens for Laboratory Diagnosis of Lyme Disease. Healthcare, 6(3), 99.
56. H Bruckbauer,V Preac-Mursic,R Fuchs,B Wilske (1992). Cross-reactive proteins ofBorrelia burgdorferi. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases, 11(3), 224-232.
57. U Hauser,G Lehnert,R Lobentanzer,B Wilske (1997). Interpretation criteria for standardized Western blots for three European species of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 35(6), 1433-1444.
58. Ulrike Hauser,Gisela Lehnert,Bettina Wilske (1998). Diagnostic Value of Proteins of ThreeBorreliaSpecies (Borrelia burgdorferiSensu Lato) and Implications for Development and Use of Recombinant Antigens for Serodiagnosis of Lyme Borreliosis in Europe. Clinical Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology, 5(4), 456-462.
59. Ulrike Hauser,Gisela Lehnert,Bettina Wilske (1999). Validity of Interpretation Criteria for Standardized Western Blots (Immunoblots) for Serodiagnosis of Lyme Borreliosis Based on Sera Collected throughout Europe. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 37(7), 2241-2247.
60. (1997). Case Definitions for Infectious Conditions Under Public Health Surveillance. MMWR, 46(10)
61. Abhishek Chandra,Gary Wormser,Mark Klempner,Richard Trevino,Mary Crow,Norman Latov,Armin Alaedini (2010). Anti-neural antibody reactivity in patients with a history of Lyme borreliosis and persistent symptoms. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 24(6), 1018-1024.
62. Brian Fallon,Elizabeth Levin,Pernilla Schweitzer,David Hardesty (2010). Inflammation and central nervous system Lyme disease. Neurobiology of Disease, 37(3), 534-541.
63. Robert Bransfield (2012). The Psychoimmunology of Lyme/Tick-Borne Diseases and its Association with Neuropsychiatric Symptoms. The Open Neurology Journal, 06(1), 88-93.
64. Amy Cross,Denis Bouboulis,Craig Shimasaki,Charles Jones (2021). Case Report: PANDAS and Persistent Lyme Disease With Neuropsychiatric Symptoms: Treatment, Resolution, and Recovery. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 1-19.
65. Hanna Rhee,Daniel Cameron (2012). Lyme disease and pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections (PANDAS): an overview. International Journal of General Medicine, 5, 163.
66. Jennifer Coughlin,Ting Yang,Alison Rebman,Kathleen Bechtold,Yong Du,William Mathews,Wojciech Lesniak,Erica Mihm,Sarah Frey,Erica Marshall,Hailey Rosenthal,Tristan Reekie,Michael Kassiou,Robert Dannals,Mark Soloski,John Aucott,Martin Pomper (2018). Imaging glial activation in patients with post-treatment Lyme disease symptoms: a pilot study using [11C]DPA-713 PET. Journal of Neuroinflammation, 15(1), 346.
67. Elizabeth Raveche,Steven Schutzer,Helen Fernandes,Helen Bateman,Brian Mccarthy,Steven Nickell,Madeleine Cunningham (2005). Evidence ofBorreliaAutoimmunity-Induced Component of Lyme Carditis and Arthritis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 43(2), 850-856.
68. Brian Fallon,Barbara Strobino,Sean Reim,Julie Stoner,Madeleine Cunningham (2020). Anti-lysoganglioside and other anti-neuronal autoantibodies in post-treatment Lyme Disease and Erythema Migrans after repeat infection. Brain, Behavior, & Immunity - Health, 2, 100015.
69. Allen Steere,Elise Drouin,Lisa Glickstein (2011). Relationship between Immunity to Borrelia burgdorferi Outer-surface Protein A (OspA) and Lyme Arthritis. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 52(suppl_3), s259-s265.
70. Caroline Reis,Martine Cote,Danielle Le Rhun,Benoit Lecuelle,Michael Levin,Muriel Vayssier-Taussat,Sarah Bonnet (2011). Vector Competence of the Tick Ixodes ricinus for Transmission of Bartonella birtlesii. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 5(5), e1186.
71. Violaine Cotté,Sarah Bonnet,Danielle Le Rhun,Evelyne Le Naour,Alain Chauvin,Henri-Jean Boulouis,Benoit Lecuelle,Thomas Lilin,Muriel Vayssier-Taussat (2008). Transmission ofBartonella henselaebyIxodes ricinus. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 14(7), 1074-1080.
72. Martin Adelson,Raja-Venkitesh S. Rao,Richard Tilton,Kimberly Cabets,Eugene Eskow,Lesley Fein,James Occi,Eli Mordechai (2004). Prevalence ofBorrelia burgdorferi,Bartonellaspp.,Babesia microti, andAnaplasma phagocytophilainIxodes scapularisTicks Collected in Northern New Jersey. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 42(6), 2799-2801.
73. Kevin Holden,John Boothby,Rickie Kasten,Bruno Chomel (2006). Co-detection of Bartonella henselae, Borrelia burgdorferi , and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Ixodes pacificus Ticks from California, USA. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, 6(1), 99-102.
74. L�na�g Halos,Taoufik Jamal,Renaud Maillard,Frederic Beugnet,Arnaud Le Menach,Henri-Jean Boulouis,Muriel Vayssier-Taussat (2005). Evidence of Bartonella sp. in questing adult and nymphal Ixodes ricinus ticks from France and co-infection with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and Babesia sp. Veterinary Research, 36(1), 79-87.
75. La Scola,B Raoult,D (1999). Culture of Bartonella quintana and Bartonella henselae from Human Samples: a 5-Year Experience (1993 to 1998). J Clin Microbiol, 37, 1899-1905.
76. Anna Sander,Miriam Posselt,Norbert Böhm,Michael Ruess,Martin Altwegg (1999). Detection of Bartonella henselae DNA by Two Different PCR Assays and Determination of the Genotypes of Strains Involved in Histologically Defined Cat Scratch Disease. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 37(4), 993-997.
77. M Vermeulen,M Herremans,H Verbakel,A Bergmans,J Roord,P Van Dijken,M Peeters (2007). Serological testing for Bartonella henselae infections in The Netherlands: clinical evaluation of immunofluorescence assay and ELISA. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 13(6), 627-634.
78. Michael Giladi,Yehudith Kletter,Boaz Avidor,Einat Metzkor‐cotter,Merav Varon,Yoav Golan,Miriam Weinberg,Irena Riklis,Moshe Ephros,Leonard Slater (2001). Enzyme Immunoassay for the Diagnosis of Cat‐Scratch Disease Defined by Polymerase Chain Reaction. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 33(11), 1852-1858.
79. Ken-Ichiro Otsuyama,Hidehiro Tsuneoka,Hiroka Yoshidomi,Mio Haraguchi,Masashi Yanagihara,Nobuko Tokuda,Junzo Nojima,Kiyoshi Ichihara (2017). Utility of Bartonella henselae IgM Western Blot Bands for Serodiagnosis of Cat Scratch Disease. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 56(1), 1322-1339.
80. J Daly,M Worthington,D Brenner,C Moss,D Hollis,R Weyant,A Steigerwalt,R Weaver,M Daneshvar,S O'connor (1993). Rochalimaea elizabethae sp. nov. isolated from a patient with endocarditis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 31(4), 872-881.
81. Véronique Roux,Susannah Eykyn,Sarah Wyllie,Didier Raoult (2000). Bartonella vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii as an Agent of Afebrile Blood Culture-Negative Endocarditis in a Human. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 38(4), 1698-1700.
82. Florence Fenollar,Stéphane Sire,Didier Raoult (2005). Bartonella vinsonii subsp. arupensis as an Agent of Blood Culture-Negative Endocarditis in a Human. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 43(2), 945-947.
83. E Breitschwerdt,R Maggi,W Nicholson,N Cherry,C Woods (2008). Bartonellasp. Bacteremia in Patients with Neurological and Neurocognitive Dysfunction. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 46(9), 2856-2861.
84. E Breitschwerdt,R Maggi,P Lantos,C Woods,B Hegarty,J Bradley (2010). Bartonella vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii and Bartonella henselae bacteremia in a father and daughter with neurological disease. Parasit Vectors, 3(1), 29.
85. La Scola,B Raoult,D (1996). Serological cross-reactions between Bartonella quintana, Bartonella henselae, and Coxiella burnetii. J Clin Microbiol, 34(9), 2270-2274.
86. Craig Shimasaki,Richard Frye,Rosario Trifiletti,Michael Cooperstock,Gary Kaplan,Isaac Melamed,Rosalie Greenberg,Amiram Katz,Eric Fier,David Kem,David Traver,Tania Dempsey,M Latimer,Amy Cross,Joshua Dunn,Rebecca Bentley,Kathy Alvarez,Sean Reim,James Appleman (2019). Evaluation of the Cunningham Panel™ in pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorder associated with streptococcal infection (PANDAS) and pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome (PANS): Changes in antineuronal antibody titers parallel changes in patient symptoms. Journal of Neuroimmunology, 339, 577138.
87. Jennifer Chain,Kathy Alvarez,Adita Mascaro-Blanco,Sean Reim,Rebecca Bentley,Rebecca Hommer,Paul Grant,James Leckman,Ivana Kawikova,Kyle Williams,Julie Stoner,Susan Swedo,Madeleine Cunningham (2020). Autoantibody Biomarkers for Basal Ganglia Encephalitis in Sydenham Chorea and Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorder Associated With Streptococcal Infections. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, 564.
88. Kathleen Connery,Marie Tippett,Leanna Delhey,Shannon Rose,John Slattery,Stephen Kahler,Juergen Hahn,Uwe Kruger,Madeleine Cunningham,Craig Shimasaki,Richard Frye (2018). Intravenous immunoglobulin for the treatment of autoimmune encephalopathy in children with autism. Translational Psychiatry, 8(1), 148.
89. Christine Kirvan,Susan Swedo,David Kurahara,Madeleine Cunningham (2006). Streptococcal mimicry and antibody-mediated cell signaling in the pathogenesis of Sydenham's chorea. Autoimmunity, 39(1), 21-29.
90. Nadia Ellis,David Kurahara,Harpreet Vohra,Adita Mascaro‐blanco,Guliz Erdem,Elisabeth Adderson,L Veasy,Julie Stoner,Elizabeth Tam,Harry Hill,Karen Yamaga,Madeleine Cunningham (2010). Priming the Immune System for Heart Disease: A Perspective on Group A Streptococci. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 202(7), 1059-1067.
91. Madeleine Cunningham (2013). Autoimmunity. Current Opinion in Rheumatology, 25(4), 477-479.
92. Hilla Ben-Pazi,Julie Stoner,Madeleine Cunningham (2013). Dopamine Receptor Autoantibodies Correlate with Symptoms in Sydenham's Chorea. PLoS ONE, 8(9), e73516.
93. Dafna Lotan,Itai Benhar,Kathy Alvarez,Adita Mascaro-Blanco,Lior Brimberg,Dan Frenkel,Madeleine Cunningham,Daphna Joel (2014). Behavioral and neural effects of intra-striatal infusion of anti-streptococcal antibodies in rats. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 38, 249-262.
94. Harvey Singer,Adda Mascaro-Blanco,Kathy Alvarez,Christina Morris-Berry,Ivana Kawikova,Hilla Ben-Pazi,Carol Thompson,Syed Ali,Edward Kaplan,Madeleine Cunningham (2015). Neuronal Antibody Biomarkers for Sydenham’s Chorea Identify a New Group of Children with Chronic Recurrent Episodic Acute Exacerbations of Tic and Obsessive Compulsive Symptoms Following a Streptococcal Infection. PLOS ONE, 10(3), e0120499.
95. Susanne Bejerot,Eva Hesselmark (2019). The Cunningham Panel is an unreliable biological measure. Translational Psychiatry, 9(1), 49.
96. Richard Frye,Craig Shimasaki (2019). Reliability of the Cunningham Panel. Translational Psychiatry, 9(1), 129.
97. Vicky Watts,Sooria Balasegaram,Colin Brown,Suzanna Mathew,Rachel Mearkle,Derren Ready,Vanessa Saliba,Theresa Lamagni (2019). Increased Risk for Invasive Group AStreptococcusDisease for Household Contacts of Scarlet Fever Cases, England, 2011–2016. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 25(3), 529-537.
98. G Tyrrell,S Fathima,J Kakulphimp,C ; Bell,B Kuehn (2018). Increasing Rates of Invasive Group A Streptococcal Disease in Alberta, Canada; 2003-2017. Open Forum Infect Dis, 5(8), 138.
99. A Lerner,Jeremias,Matthias (2015). The World Incidence and Prevalence of Autoimmune Diseases is Increasing. Int J Celiac Dis, 3(4), 151-155.
100. L Gold,M Ward,M Dosemeci,Ajd Roos (2007). Systemic Autoimmune Disease Mortality and Occupational Exposures. Arthritis Rheum, 56(10), 3189-3201.
101. I Lundberg,L Alfredsson,N Plato,B Sverdrup,L Klareskog,S Kleinau (1994). Occupation, Occupational Exposure to Chemicals and Rheumatological Disease: A register based cohort study. Scand J Rheumatol, 23(6), 305-310.
102. S Vieira,O Pagovich,M Kriegel (2014). Diet, microbiota and autoimmune diseases. Lupus, 23(6), 518-526.
103. A Manzel,D Muller,D Hafler,S Erdman,R Linker,M Kleinewietfeld (2014). Role of "Western Diet" in Inflammatory Autoimmune Diseases. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep, 14(1), 404.
104. L Stojanovich,D Marisavljevich (2008). Stress as a trigger of autoimmune disease. Autoimmun Rev, 7(3), 209-213.
105. Huan Song,Fang Fang,Gunnar Tomasson,Filip Arnberg,David Mataix-Cols,Lorena Fernández De La Cruz,Catarina Almqvist,Katja Fall,Unnur Valdimarsdóttir (2013). Association of Stress-Related Disorders With Subsequent Autoimmune Disease. JAMA, 319(23), 2388.
106. B Paul,S Barnes,W Demark-Wahnefried,C Morrow,C Salvador,C Skibola,T Tollefsbol (2015). Influences of diet and the gut microbiome on epigenetic modulation in cancer and other diseases. Clin Epigenet, 7(1)
107. Y Qin,P Wade (2018). Crosstalk between the microbiome and epigenome: messages from bugs. J Biochem, 163(2), 105-112.
108. Jennifer Chan,Bridget Nugent,Tracy Bale (2018). Parental Advisory: Maternal and Paternal Stress Can Impact Offspring Neurodevelopment. Biological Psychiatry, 83(10), 886-894.

Download References

Funding

No external funding was declared for this work.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

No ethics committee approval was required for this article type.

Data Availability

Not applicable for this article.

How to Cite This Article

Daniel A. Kinderlehrer, Nancy Brown. 2021. "Microbial Induced Autoimmune Inflammation as a Cause of Mental Illness in Adolescents: A Case Series". Global Journal of Medical Research - A: Neurology & Nervous System GJMR-A Volume 21 (GJMR Volume 21 Issue A1).

More Citation Formats

Select Citation Style:

Download Citation

GJMR Volume 21 Issue A1

Explore Journals Explore Volume Read This Issue

Journal Specifications

Crossref Journal DOI 10.17406/gjmr

Print ISSN 0975-5888

e-ISSN 2249-4618

Keywords

Not Found

Classification

GJMR-A Classification FOR Code: WL 340

Submission ReceivedJune 12, 2021
Peer Review Double Blind
Handling Editor
Accepted July 1, 2021
Published July 15, 2021

Version of record

v1.2

Issue date

March 6, 2021

Language

English

Order Article Reprint

Experiance in AR

Explore published articles in an immersive Augmented Reality environment. Our platform converts research papers into interactive 3D books, allowing readers to view and interact with content using AR and VR compatible devices.

View in VR

Read in 3D

Your published article is automatically converted into a realistic 3D book. Flip through pages and read research papers in a more engaging and interactive format.

View in 3D

Article Matrices

Total Views: 840

Total Downloads: 45

All Trends