I. INTRODUCTION
a) Background Information
Strategy is about creating a unique and valuable market position, making trade-offs by choosing "what not to do" and creating 'fit' by aligning company activities with one another to support the chosen strategy(Porter,1996).Strategic management involves the formulation and implementation of the major goals and initiatives taken by an organization's top managers on behalf of owners, based on consideration of available resources and an assessment of the internal and external environments in which the organization operates, (Alkhafaji, 2003; Courtney, 2002; Nag, Hambrick and Chen, 2007). It provides overall direction to an enterprise and involves specifying the organization's objectives, developing policies and plans to achieve those objectives, and then allocating resources to implement those plans.
Abraham Stanley defines Strategic planning as a series of steps followed by a company collectively trying to agree on where it is going (i.e., vision) and how it is going to get there (i.e., strategy) (Abraham, 2012).
At the institutional level, KESI defines strategic planning is a process that identifies where the organization wants to be in future and how it's going to get there. He continues to say that the process defines the strategy (direction) of the school and allocating resources to pursue this strategy (KESI, 2011).
i. Background of the study
Strategic planning has its origin in the military, where it was used by army officers after the second world war and later on found its way in the corporations of the 1950s (Singh, 2008). By the 1950s, an early form of strategic planning, the SWOT analysis was already in use at the Harvard Business school (Lawrie, 2005)). In the 1960s, it had become a standard management tool in most of the companies (Blackerby, 2003).
Strategic planning came into the domain of public organizations in the 1980s. Among the first government agencies to incorporate strategic planning into their planning process were the states of Oregon and Texas. In Texas, a bill was passed by the 1991 legislative requiring all state agencies to submit a strategic plan every other year (ibid).
In the corporate world, Strategic planning is a vital management tool that companies within the same industries use to gain a competitive advantage. It enables companies to create value for their customers through a combination of available resources, capabilities, and distinctive competencies, and this determines competition within the industry (Hill and Jones, 2008).
Europe has taken important strides in schools planning and development although the sector still needs to address challenges such as learning skills and attitudes, the role of new technologies (e-learning, e-tools, and e-networking) and place of ethics in planning education (Deal and Peterson, 2008). An important development was seen in the 1990s when the European countries' agencies for training teachers, reviewed qualifications for the headship of schools which defined standards for school leadership. These were since then to be based on some crucial areas, among them strategic planning and development, thus ensuring that every head of a school was in a position to spearhead the strategic planning process (Knight, 1998).
In the USA, for instance, Strategic planning follows a four-step process for planning a school-wide program, conducting a comprehensive needs assessment, managing the inquiry process, designing the program, and evaluating the program (Cook, 2006). Research in U.S local governments indicated that the use of strategic planning in all the states leads to improved financial performance (Camarata, 2003).
Strategic planning in sub-Saharan Africa has been developing at a slow pace, in the education sector, these countries have to deal with the challenges of financing, quality, and relevance of teaching and learning, curriculum and assessment, science and technology, teacher training and management, equality, and access (world bank working papers, 2008). These challenges ought to be addressed and the focus should be on use of strategic planning at all levels of the education sector.
b) Strategic Planning in Kenya
In Kenya Strategic planning was introduced in the public sector through the structural adjustment programs that were introduced in the 1980s although progress made has been different in various sectors, a lot of determination has yielded some significant benefits. A strategic approach to management in general, and strategic planning, in particular, has gained prominence in education in the recent past in Kenya (Republic of Kenya 2005a, 2005b, 2006). It has increasingly gained status as a management tool because of its ability to contribute to the development of sustainable educational institutions (Bell 2002). Today more than before, there is a need for us as a Nation to embrace strategic planning because of the emerging trends in the global environment.
Kenya like any other nation is under obligation to implement various global and regional frameworks that ensure that the education system is aligned to the emerging global trends such as Agenda 21. The Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002) re-affirmed the educational objectives of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Dakar Framework for Action on Education for All (EFA) In 2012, the World Community met for the UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20), and in 2015, the global community adopted Sustainable Development Goals. Education for Sustainable Development is included in SDG-4, which aspires to "Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all." In 2012 the Africa Ministerial Conference on Environment (AMCEN) produced the Arusha Declaration that has led to the development of an African Environmental Education and Training Action Plan (AEETAP). Agenda 2063 of the African Union of which Kenya is a member calls for action on catalyzing the education and skills revolution to build knowledge, human capital, capabilities, and skills to drive innovations on the continent (African Union Commission, 2015) (Ministry of education, 2017).
Migori county public schools are faced with several challenges in addition to changing global political, economic, social, and technological environments that could be alleviated by careful strategic planning. Some of these challenges, as obtained from the county director of education, include; poverty, low enrollment, low transition rate, gender inequality, poor infrastructure, high dropout rate and lack of facilities, among others.
c) Statement of the Problem
Recent research studies have made it clear that there is an increased internal and external uncertainty in organizations due to emerging opportunities and threats together with a lack of awareness of the exact organizational needs. The uncertainty comes inform of changes in technological, social, political, and economic forces. As a result of these changing forces, the management process at all levels in both the private and public sectors has become more challenging, requiring greater skills aimed at driving the future course of the organizations in the amid uncertain world. Strategic planning comes in handy in providing these skills (Steiss, 2003). Other studies reveal a significant relationship between strategic planning and organizations' performance (Fullan 2004; Steyn & Wolhuter 2010; Efendioghu, 2010). For example according to Steyn & Wolhuter strategic planning helps in a school's self-study and evaluation, whereby areas of strengths and future challenges are identified and included in future plans. Eacott (2011), on the other hand, affirms that strategic planning can improve school- community relationships, since it is a useful tool for communication across traditional boundaries in the school.
Several studies have revealed the challenges that face the strategic planning process in public secondary schools as leadership, lack of stakeholder involvement, limited resources, policy challenges, and institutional challenges such as and rewards systems which demoralize the staff who form an important section of the stakeholders (Tumusiime, 2010; Ombo. 2010; Dr. Kiprop and Dr. Kanyiri 2012; Dr. Catherine J. Kiprop, Dr. Emily J. Bomett and Jane Jelimo Michael 2015)
Proper strategic planning, therefore, ensures the fulfillment of the organizational goals and objectives and continues monitoring and evaluation of all the strategies put in place. With the global policy on education for all that has led to free primary and subsidized secondary education in Kenya, the limited resources are strained, hence calling for the need for serious planning at the ministerial, county, and school level (GOK, 2012).
Available data from the county education office indicate that most secondary schools in Migori County have been reluctant in the formulation and implementation of strategic plans. The far that most of them can go is the formulation stage, leaving out the most critical stages of implementation and continuous evaluation. Furthermore, the formulation for most schools rarely involves a thorough analysis of the external and internal environment to come up with workable strategies because of the time limit. Recent studies have also indicated that the organizational culture plays a crucial role in how far the school can go with strategic planning. (Cheng' oli Calistus Kisumo, Ahmed Osman and Khaemba Ongeti 2013; Susan A. Aruan1 Mark I. O. Okere and Samuel Wachanga 2016)
It is for this reason that this study sought to find out the effect of organization culture in institutional strategic planning practices in public secondary schools in Migori County.
d) The Objective of the Study
The study aimed at establishing the effect of organizational culture on strategic management practices in public secondary schools in Migori County.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
a) Theories of Strategic Planning
Three theories on strategic planning are examined to form conceptual basis for the study. They include the five forces competition, the 3Cs (corporation/company, customer and the competitor), and environmental turbulence as explained in the proceeding sub-section
i. Five forces competition theory
This was developed by a management theorist Michael porter, and formed a crucial basis for strategic planning. The five forces framework is a method that is used to analyze competition for a business enabling it to determine the competitive intensity and therefore the attractiveness (or lack of it) of an industry in terms of profitability. These forces allow an organization to identify potential environmental influences that shape the competitive context in which it must operate (Sawka & Flora, 2003). Porter developed the framework in reaction to the then popular SWOT analysis which he found to have some limitations. According to porter, the essence of strategy formulation is coping with competition, and the state of competition in any industry depends on five important forces, namely; Rivalry, Threat of Substitutes, Buyer Power, Supplier Power, and Barriers to Entry/Threat of Entry. His position is that the collective strength of these forces determines the ultimate profit potential of an industry. The manager's goal, according to Porter, is to find a position in an industry where he/her company can defend itself against these forces or can influence them in its favor (Porter, 1979; 2008;)
ii. Kenichi Ohmae's 3Cs Theory
Dr. Kenichi Ohmae, a management guru from Japan, developed the 3Cs model. The model offers a strategic look at the factors needed for success. This model shows that a strategist should focus on three crucial factors for success, namely, the corporation/company, customer, and the competitor. According to Kenichi Ohmae, strategic planning should aim at attaining a competitive advantage over competitors in the industry. Strategic planning's purpose is to enable a company to gain, as efficiently as possible, a sustainable edge over competitors (Ohmae, 1982; 1991).
Customer based strategies
According to Kenichi, a corporation's foremost concern ought to be the interest of its customers rather than that of stockholders and other parties. This is because customers have needs and wants which the company must recognize and offer the services. Some of the customer-related strategies that corporations can use include; differentiating in terms of the way customers use their products, segmenting the market by customer coverage so that the cost of marketing will be advantageous to the competition, re-segmenting the market when the previous market segments seem to be declining and changes in the customer mix (ohmae, 1991).
Corporation-based strategies
These strategies, according to Kenichi, aim to maximize the corporation's strengths relative to the competition in the industry, such as subcontracting a major share of its operation in case of increased wage costs, choosing a key function in which to specialize in, and improving cost effectiveness through cost cutting. He argues that a corporation does not have to excel in every function but should strive in one key function which will further cause it to eventually improve its other functions. (Ohmae, 1982:1991)
Competitor- based strategies
According to Kenichi, a corporation can gain a competitive edge over others in the industry by looking at possible sources of differentiation in its functions such as in public relations and promotion, which creates a better image and products and services, among others (Ohmae, 1982:1991).
iii. The theory of environmental turbulence
The theory was developed by Igor Ansoff in the 1960s.Igor Ansoff is said to be the father of strategic management. His book on corporate strategy guided on how to plan for the future. The system of planning by then paid very little attention to strategic issues. He defines the environment as "a set of elements and their relevant properties which elements are not parts of the system but a change in any of which can produce a change in the state of the system." (Ansoff, 1972). Hence the environment consist of "all the variables that can affect a firm", namely, economic, political, sociological, psychological, technological, and geographical forces in the segment of the world in which the business chooses to operate. According to Ansoff, effective response to the environment is the key to long-run strategic success. According to his theory, to be effective, a company's strategy needs to match the level of turbulence present in its environment. Ansoff recognized five levels of these in which an organization can operate, namely; stable, expanding, changing, discontinuous, and surprising. Level one environments are characterized as stable, which implies no change.
At level two, environments referred to as expanding; change does occur, but it is slow, fully visible, and predictable. Level three, regarded as changing; change is fast, fully visible and predictable. These first three levels are driven by history, where behaviors that have produced success in the past and present will very likely yield success in the future. Level four named discontinuous; change occurs very fast and the environment is partially visible, and partially predictable. Level five, regarded as surprising; change is speedy, not predictable, and not visible. These last two environments are discontinuous in that one cannot predict the future from the past and present. Predictions of these are founded on patterns of weak signals that indicate a possible future (Ansoff, 1990).
b) Organization culture
Several leading scholars such as Edgar Schein, and Geert Hofstede, agree that culture is shared (group dynamics involved), pervasive, enduring, and implicit. Further, there is a general agreement among scholars that it is linked with leadership in their effect on strategic planning process in an organization. Boris Groysberg, Jeremiah Lee, Jesse price, and J. yojud cheng (2018) identified eight styles that distinguish a culture by integrating findings from more than 100 of the most commonly used social and behavioral models available. Using this framework, leaders can model its impact on their organization and assess its alignment with strategy. The eight are; caring, purpose, learning, enjoyment, results, authority, safety, and order.
c) Culture Influence in Institutional Strategic planning process
Organizational culture determines the success of any strategic planning process and especially at the implementation stages hence its significance in the entire process. Culture consists of the values and assumptions shared with in an organization. Organizational culture directs everyone in the organization toward the "right way" of doing things. It frames and shapes the decisions that managers and other employees should make and the actions they should take (L. Mcshane, 2008; Dubrin, 2012). Organizational culture develops over time and the members learn it through socialization. The right one can enhance productivity, quality, and morale. A culture that emphasizes productivity and quality encourages workers to be more productive and quality conscious. Top managers, because they can influence which kinds of beliefs and values develop in an organization, are an important determinant of how the members will work toward achieving organizational goals (Hill and Jones, 2010).
Several researchers concur with the fact that culture has a great influence on the strategic planning practices in any organization (Cornerstone, 2010; Pearce and Robinson 2004; Otter and Heskett 2005). Cornerstone (2010), for instance, observed that organizational culture provides a strong foundation of organizational success but can also become a significant impediment to success when executing a major strategic change. Pearce and Robinson (2004) further ascertain that culture can be a source of strength and weakness for an organization. As a strengths, culture can facilitate communication, decision making and control, and create cooperation, and commitment, which are essential for any strategic intent. As a weakness, culture may obstruct the smooth implementation of the strategy by creating resistance to change. Otter and Heskett (2005) assert that an organizational culture can be characterized as weak when many subcultures exist, few values and behavior norms are shared, and traditions are rare. In such organizations, employees do not have a sense of commitment, loyalty, and a sense of identity. Such organizations exhibit traits such as politicized organizational environment, hostility to change, promoting bureaucracy in preference to creativity and entrepreneurship, and unwillingness to look outside the organization for best practices.
Several researchers assert that in any strategic planning practice in a school, it is necessary to consider the school culture. Harris (2002) believes that successful school improvement can only occur when schools apply these strategies that best fit in their context and particular developmental needs. Deal and Peterson (2004) illustrates how dysfunctional school cultures such, as low morale, emotional outburst, and subculture values that supersede shared organizational values can impede organizational improvement.
Muya and Nyongesa (2012) observed that an institution's culture could be strong and cohesive when it conducts its business according to a clear and explicit set of principles and values, which the management devotes considerable time to communicate to employees and students, and which are shared widely within the organization. They further assert that the three most important factors that contribute to the building of a strong culture are; an influential leader who establishes suitable values,sincere and dedicated commitment to operate the business of the institution according to these, and genuine concern for the wellbeing of the institution's stakeholders.
III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
a) Research Design
A descriptive research design was applied in order to fulfill the objective of the study, since it describes the state of affairs as it exists at present (Kothari, 2003).
The study's target population was the school principals, deputy principals, and heads of departments in the public secondary schools in Migori County. This composition translates to a total number of 1056, given that there are a total of 176 public secondary schools in Migori County. Each of the schools has one principal, one deputy principal, and a minimum of four heads of departments making a total of six respondents in every school.Table3.1 below shows the targeted population in the county.
b) Target Population
| Sub-County | No. of Schools | No. of Respondents Per School | Target Population |
| Rongo | 32 | 6 | 192 |
| Uriri | 18 | 6 | 108 |
| Awendo | 16 | 6 | 96 |
| Migori | 39 | 6 | 234 |
| Nyatike | 35 | 6 | 210 |
| Kuria East | 15 | 6 | 90 |
| Kuria West | 21 | 6 | 126 |
| Total | 176 | 1056 |
c) Sample Size and Sampling Design
The study used a stratified random sampling method to select a sample of 106 informants at a 0.10 sampling ratio per category. Vanderstoep & Johnston (2009) claims that dividing the sampling frame into strata allows the researcher to sample proportionately based on the size of each stratum. Dawson (2002) asserts that the size of the sample depends upon the type and purpose of research. Table 3.2 below shows the sample size.
| Sub-County | Target Population | % | Sample Size |
| Rongo | 192 | 0.1 | 19 |
| Uriri | 108 | 0.1 | 11 |
| Awendo | 96 | 0.1 | 10 |
| Migori | 234 | 0.1 | 23 |
| Nyatike | 210 | 0.1 | 21 |
| Kuria East | 90 | 0.1 | 09 |
| Kuria West | 126 | 0.1 | 13 |
| TOTAL | 1056 | 106 |
The figure below shows the percentage of the total sample in every sub-county
sample per sub county
d) Data Collection Instruments
The study used primary data only. This concentrated on respondents' opinions and appraisals concerning the study variables and was collected by use of a questionnaire instrument that was self-administered. The semi-structured format of the instrument allowed for the inclusion of closed-ended question items, which are essential in limiting response details while facilitating timely analysis. Where the study sought detailed and explained responses, open-ended question items were used. The questionnaires were distributed using a drop and pick method, and telephone calls used to enhance quick response.
e) Instrument Validity and Reliability
Research instruments are measurement devices that must possess adequate reliability and validity. The Reliability of an instrument is the extent to which its scores are free from errors of measurement, while validity is the extent to which it measures what it has been designed to measure (Dornyei, 2003). The study adopted pre-testing as one comprehensive procedure towards enhancing instrument validity and reliability. The study obtained the pilot units, equivalent to one-tenth of the proposed sample size, from comparable members of the population from which the sample for the full study was finally taken. This size is informed by Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), who regard the proportion as sufficient for pilot testing.
The results from the pilot testing aided in fine-tuning and finalizing the questionnaire. The pilot participants were not involved in the ultimate field study.
f) Data Analysis
The collected data were thoroughly examined and processed before drawing inferences through a series of operations involving editing to eliminate inconsistencies, classification based on similarity and tabulation to relate variables. Subsequently, the refined and organized data was coded and analyzed using descriptive statistics involving percentages to determine varying degrees of response-concentration. An advantage of descriptive statistics is that they make a mass of research material easier to read by reducing a large set of data into a few statistics or some pictures such as graphs or tables (Argyrous, 2005).
The statistics were generated with an aid of the computer software, Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 20.0. Further, the researcher ensured that resulting summaries from the findings presented data in a consolidated and meaningful framework, and thus, the analysis focused on accuracy and reliability about the study's pre-designed objectives. Finally, for communicative effectiveness to ultimate users, findings were presented using both tabular and graphical representations.
IV. DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
a) Response Rate
The study had set to obtain intended feedbacks from a total of 106 participants working in management positions in public secondary schools as either school principals, deputy principals, or heads of various departments. Even though all target respondents were approached for responses, three did not return the questionnaires sent to them. This resulted in a total of 103 successful completions, representing a response rate of 97%. At this response rate guaranteed representativeness as it surpassed the 60% threshold recommended by Bell (2005).
b) Effect of organizational culture on the development of strategic planning practices
Organizational culture has a great influence on the overall performance of various subsystems in an organization. The study, therefore, sought to find out its effect on strategic planning practices in public secondary schools.
The respondents' level of agreement on the effect of various cultural practices on strategic planning practices in their institutions were as represented in figure 2 below.
Figure 2: Level of agreement on the effect of culture on the development of strategic planning practices in public secondary schools
The study findings revealed that a higher percentage of respondents strongly agreed that some specific cultural practices enhanced strategic planning practices, while a very little percentage of respondents just agreed.
The study sought to investigate from the respondents the extent to which they felt organizational culture affected strategic planning practices. Figure 3 Below shows findings.
Figure 3: The extent to which various cultural factors influence the development of strategic planning practices in public secondary schools From the findings, most of the respondents concurred that culture influences the development of strategic planning practices in public secondary schools.83.96% of the respondents felt that culture influenced the development of strategic planning practices to a very great extent.
V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
It is evident that there is an overall relationship between organizational culture and strategic planning. Most learning institutions are characterized by cultures that are caring, result-oriented, and adherence to the authority. As a result, the principal of the school determines the school culture until replaced by another one.
Leadership determines to a great extent, organizational culture. It is therefore recommended that the school leadership changes the culture so as it is in line with strategic planning practices since there is a need to change strategy over time because of the changing global environment. The organizational culture should embrace positive attitudes, openness to change, involvement in strategic planning at all stages, respect for others, and recognition for efforts done, among others.
