Stupidity in the Age of Reason

Stupidity in the Age of Reason

James F. Welles

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Connecting with the Eternal Ground

Abstract

The Age of Reason was marked by a decline in the theological basis of knowledge due to a rise of scientific explanations of natural phenomena-trends which reflected the application of reason to philosophy, astronomy (where it was most effective) and biology. However during this era, the political life of nations continued to be shaped by power while the cognitive life of people continued to be shaped by religion, tradition and emotion, which combined to make this period as unreasonable as any other.

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Alexander Tsygankov (2008). History of Philosophy. 2018, Vol. 23, No. 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Theory and Methodology of History of Philosophy Rodion V. Savinov. Philosophy of Antiquity in Scholasticism This article examines the forms of understanding ancient philosophy in medieval and post-medieval scholasticism. Using the comparative method the author identifies the main approaches to the philosophical heritage of Antiquity, and to the problem of reviving the doctrines of the past. The Patristics (Epiphanius of Cyprus, Filastrius of Brixia, Lactantius, Augustine) saw the ancient cosmological doctrines as heresies. The early Middle Ages (e.g., Isidore of Seville) assimilated the content of these heresiographic treatises, which became the main source of information about ancient philosophy. Scholasticism of the 13th–14th cent. remained cautious to ancient philosophy and distinguished, on the one hand, the doctrinal content discussed in the framework of the exegetic problems at universities (Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, etc.), and, on the other hand, information on ancient philosophers integrated into chronological models of medieval chronicles (Peter Comestor, Vincent de Beauvais, Walter Burleigh). Finally, the post-medieval scholasticism (Pedro Fonseca, Conimbricenses, Th. Stanley, and others) raised the questions of the «history of ideas», thereby laying the foundation of the history of philosophy in its modern sense. Keywords: history of philosophy, Patristic, Scholasticism, reflection, critic DOI: 10.21146/2074-5869-2018-23-2-5-17 World Philosophy: the Past and the Present Mariya A. Solopova. The Chronology of Democritus and the Fall of Troy The article considers the chronology of Democritus of Abdera. In the times of Classical Antiquity, three different birth dates for Democritus were known: c. 495 BC (according to Diodorus of Sicily), c. 470 BC (according to Thrasyllus), and c. 460 BC (according to Apollodorus of Athens). These dates must be coordinated with the most valuable doxographic evidence, according to which Democritus 1) "was a young man during Anaxagoras’s old age" and that 2) the Lesser World-System (Diakosmos) was compiled 730 years after the Fall of Troy. The article considers the argument in favor of the most authoritative datings belonging to Apollodorus and Thrasyllus, and draws special attention to the meaning of the dating of Democritus’ work by himself from the year of the Fall of Troy. The question arises, what prompted Democritus to talk about the date of the Fall of Troy and how he could calculate it. The article expresses the opinion that Democritus indicated the date of the Fall of Troy not with the aim of proposing its own date, different from others, but in order to date the Lesser World-System in the spirit of intellectual achievements of his time, in which, perhaps, the history of the development of mankind from the primitive state to the emergence of civilization was discussed. The article discusses how to explain the number 730 and argues that it can be the result of combinations of numbers 20 (the number of generations that lived from the Fall of Troy to Democritus), 35 – one of the constants used for calculations of generations in genealogical research, and 30. The last figure perhaps indicates the age of Democritus himself, when he wrote the Lesser Diakosmos: 30 years old. Keywords: Ancient Greek philosophy, Democritus, Anaxagoras, Greek chronography, doxographers, Apollodorus, Thrasyllus, capture of Troy, ancient genealogies, the length of a generation DOI: 10.21146/2074-5869-2018-23-2-18-31 Bembya L. Mitruyev. “Yogācārabhumi-Śāstra” as a Historical and Philosophical Source The article deals with “Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra” – a treatise on the Buddhist Yogācāra school. Concerning the authorship of this text, the Indian and Chinese traditions diverge: in the first, the treatise is attributed to Asanga, and in the second tradition to Maitreya. Most of the modern scholars consider it to be a compilation of many texts, and not the work of one author. Being an important monument for both the Yogacara tradition and Mahayana Buddhism in general, Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra is an object of scientific interest for the researchers all around the world. The text of the treatise consists of five parts, which are divided into chapters. The contents of the treatise sheds light on many concepts of Yogācāra, such as ālayavijñāna, trisvabhāva, kliṣṭamanas, etc. Having briefly considered the textological problems: authorship, dating, translation, commenting and genre of the text, the author suggests the reconstruction of the content of the entire monument, made on the basis of his own translation from the Tibetan and Sanskrit. This allows him to single out from the whole variety of topics those topics, the study of which will increase knowledge about the history of the formation of the basic philosophical concepts of Yogācāra and thereby allow a deeper understanding of the historical and philosophical process in Buddhism and in other philosophical movements of India. Keywords: Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Asaṅga, Māhāyana, Vijñānavāda, Yogācāra, Abhidharma, ālayavijñāna citta, bhūmi, mind, consciousness, meditation DOI: 10.21146/2074-5869-2018-23-2-32-43 Tatiana G. Korneeva. Knowledge in Nāșir Khusraw’s Philosophy The article deals with the concept of “knowledge” in the philosophy of Nāșir Khusraw. The author analyzes the formation of the theory of knowledge in the Arab-Muslim philosophy. At the early stages of the formation of the Arab-Muslim philosophy the discussion of the question of cognition was conducted in the framework of ethical and religious disputes. Later followers of the Falsafa introduced the legacy of ancient philosophers into scientific circulation and began to discuss the problems of cognition in a philosophical way. Nāșir Khusraw, an Ismaili philosopher of the 11th century, expanded the scope of knowledge and revised the goals and objectives of the process of cognition. He put knowledge in the foundation of the world order, made it the cause and ultimate goal of the creation of the world. In his philosophy knowledge is the link between the different levels of the universe. The article analyzes the Nāșir Khusraw’s views on the role of knowledge in various fields – metaphysics, cosmogony, ethics and eschatology. Keywords: knowledge, cognition, Ismailism, Nāșir Khusraw, Neoplatonism, Arab-Muslim philosophy, kalām, falsafa DOI: 10.21146/2074-5869-2018-23-2-44-55 Vera Pozzi. Problems of Ontology and Criticism of the Kantian Formalism in Irodion Vetrinskii’s “Institutiones Metaphysicae” (Part II) This paper is a follow-up of the paper «Irodion Vetrinskii’s “Institutiones Metaphysicae” and the St. Petersburg Theological Academy» (Part I). The issue and the role of “ontology” in Vetrinskii’s textbook is analyzed in detail, as well as the author’s critique of Kantian “formalism”: in this connection, the paper provides a description of Vetrinskii’s discussion about Kantian theory of the a priori forms of sensible intuition and understanding. To sum up, Vetrinskii was well acquainted not only with Kantian works – and he was able to fully evaluate their innovative significance – but also with late Scholastic textbooks of the German area. Moreover, he relied on the latters to build up an eclectic defense of traditional Metaphysics, avoiding at the same time to refuse Kantian perspective in the sake of mere reaffirming a “traditional” perspective. Keywords: Philosophizing at Russian Theological Academies, Russian Enlightenment, Russian early Kantianism, St. Petersburg Theological Academy, history of Russian philosophy, history of metaphysics, G.I. Wenzel, I. Ya. Vetrinskii DOI: 10.21146/2074-5869-2018-23-2-56-67 Alexey E. Savin. Criticism of Judaism in Hegel's Early “Theological” Writings The aim of the article is to reveal the nature of criticism of Judaism by the “young” Hegel and underlying intuitions. The investigation is based on the phenomenological approach. It seeks to explicate the horizon of early Hegel's thinking. The revolutionary role of early Hegel’s ideas reactivation in the history of philosophy is revealed. The article demonstrates the fundamental importance of criticism of Judaism for the development of Hegel's thought. The sources of Hegelian thematization and problematization of Judaism – his Protestant theological background within the framework of supranaturalism and the then discussion about human rights and political emancipation of Jews – are discovered. Hegel's interpretation of the history of the Jewish people and the origin of Judaism from the destruction of trust in nature, the fundamental mood of distrust and fear of the world, leading to the development of alienation, is revealed. The falsity of the widespread thesis about early Hegel’s anti-Semitism is demonstrated. The reasons for the transition of early Hegel from “theology” to philosophy are revealed. Keywords: Hegel, Judaism, history, criticism, anti-Semitism, trust, nature, alienation, tyranny, philosophy DOI: 10.21146/2074-5869-2018-23-2-68-80 Evgeniya A. Dolgova. Philosophy at the Institute of Red Professors (1921–1938): Institutional Forms, Methods of Teaching, Students, Lecturers The article explores the history of the Institute of the Red Professors in philosophy (1921–1938). Referring to the unpublished documents in the State Archives of the Russian Federation and the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the author explores its financial and infrastructure support, information sphere, characterizes students and teachers. The article illustrates the practical experience of the functioning of philosophy within the framework of one of the extraordinary “revolutionary” projects on the renewal of the scientific and pedagogical sphere, reflects a vivid and ambiguous picture of the work of the educational institution in the 1920s and 1930s and corrects some of historiographical judgments (about the politically and socially homogeneous composition of the Institute of Red Professors, the specifics of state support of its work, privileges and the social status of the “red professors”). Keywords: Institute of the Red Professors in Philosophy, Philosophical Department, soviet education, teachers, students, teaching methods DOI: 10.21146/2074-5869-2018-23-2-81-94 Vladimir V. Starovoitov. K. Horney about the Consequences of Neurotic Development and the Ways of Its Overcoming This article investigates the views of Karen Horney on psychoanalysis and neurotic development of personality in her last two books: “Our Inner Conflicts” (1945) and “Neurosis and Human Grows” (1950), and also in her two articles “On Feeling Abused” (1951) and “The Paucity of Inner Experiences” (1952), written in the last two years of her life and summarizing her views on clinical and theoretical problems in her work with neurotics. If in her first book “The Neurotic Personality of Our Time” (1937) neurosis was a result of disturbed interpersonal relations, caused by conditions of culture, then the concept of the idealized Self open the gates to the intrapsychic life. Keywords: Neo-Freudianism, psychoanalysis, neurotic development of personality, real Self, idealized image of Self DOI: 10.21146/2074-5869-2018-23-2-95-102 Publications and Translations Victoria G. Lysenko. Dignāga on the Definition of Perception in the Vādaviddhi of Vasubandhu. A Historical and Philosophical Reconstruction of Dignāga’s Pramāṇasamuccayavṛtti (1.13-16) The paper investigates a fragment from Dignāga’s magnum opus Pramāṇasamuccayavṛtti (“Body of tools for reliable knowledge with a commentary”, 1, 13-16) where Dignāga challenges Vasubandhu’s definition of perception in the Vādaviddhi (“Rules of the dispute”). The definition from the Vādaviddhi is being compared in the paper with Vasubandhu’s ideas of perception in Abhidharmakośabhāṣya (“Encyclopedia of Abhidharma with the commentary”), and with Dignāga’s own definition of valid perception in the first part of his Pramāṇasamuccayavṛtti as well as in his Ālambanaparīkśavṛtti (“Investigation of the Object with the commentary”). The author puts forward the hypothesis that Dignāga criticizes the definition of perception in Vādaviddhi for the reason that it does not correspond to the teachings of Vasubandhu in his Abhidharmakośabhāṣya, to which he, Dignāga, referred earlier in his magnum opus. This helps Dignāga to justify his statement that Vasubandhu himself considered Vādaviddhi as not containing the essence of his teaching (asāra). In addition, the article reconstructs the logical sequence in Dignāga’s exegesis: he criticizes the Vādaviddhi definition from the representational standpoint of Sautrāntika school, by showing that it does not fulfill the function prescribed by Indian logic to definition, that of distinguishing perception from the classes of heterogeneous and homogeneous phenomena. Having proved the impossibility of moving further according to the “realistic logic” based on recognizing the existence of an external object, Dignāga interprets the Vādaviddhi’s definition in terms of linguistic philosophy, according to which the language refers not to external objects and not to the unique and private sensory experience (svalakṣaṇa-qualia), but to the general characteristics (sāmānya-lakṣaṇa), which are mental constructs (kalpanā). Keywords: Buddhism, linguistic philosophy, perception, theory of definition, consciousness, Vaibhashika, Sautrantika, Yogacara, Vasubandhu, Dignaga DOI: 10.21146/2074-5869-2018-23-2-103-117 Elizaveta A. Miroshnichenko. Talks about Lev N. Tolstoy: Reception of the Writer's Views in the Public Thought of Russia at the End of the 19th Century (Dedicated to the 190th Anniversary of the Great Russian Writer and Thinker) This article includes previously unpublished letters of Russian social thinkers such as N.N. Strakhov, E.M. Feoktistov, D.N. Tsertelev. These letters provide critical assessment of Lev N. Tolstoy’s teachings. The preface to publication includes the history of reception of Tolstoy’s moral and aesthetic philosophy by his contemporaries, as well as influence of his theory on the beliefs of Russian idealist philosopher D.N. Tsertelev. The author offers a rational reconstruction of the dialogue between two generations of thinkers representative of the 19th century – Lev N. Tolstoy and N.N. Strakhov, on the one hand, and D.N. Tsertelev, on the other. The main thesis of the paper: the “old” and the “new” generations of the 19th-century thinkers retained mutual interest and continuity in setting the problems and objectives of philosophy, despite the numerous worldview contradictions. Keywords: Russian philosophy of the nineteenth century, L.N. Tolstoy, N.N. Strakhov, D.N. Tsertelev, epistolary heritage, ethics, aesthetics DOI: 10.21146/2074-5869-2018-23-2-118-130 Reviews Nataliya A. Tatarenko. History of Philosophy in a Format of Lecture Notes (on Hegel G.W.F. Vorlesungen zur Ästhetik. Vorlesungsmitschrift Adolf Heimann (1828/1829). Hrsg. von A.P. Olivier und A. Gethmann-Siefert. München: Wilhelm Fink, 2017. XXXI + 254 S.) Released last year, the book “G.W.F. Hegel. Vorlesungen zur Ästhetik. Vorlesungsmitschrift Adolf Heimann (1828/1829)” in German is a publication of one of the student's manuskript of Hegel's lectures on aesthetics. Adolf Heimann was a student of Hegel in 1828/29. These notes open for us imaginary doors into the audience of the Berlin University, where Hegel read his fourth and final course on the philosophy of art. A distinctive feature of this course is a new structure of lectures in comparison with three previous courses. This three-part division was took by H.G. Hotho as the basis for the edited by him text “Lectures on Aesthetics”, included in the first collection of Hegel’s works. The content of that publication was mainly based on the lectures of 1823 and 1826. There are a number of differences between the analyzed published manuskript and the students' records of 1820/21, 1823 and 1826, as well as between the manuskript and the editorial version of H.G. Hotho. These features show that Hegel throughout all four series of Berlin lectures on the philosophy of art actively developed and revised the structure and content of aesthetics. But unfortunately this evidence of the permanent development was not taken into account by the first editor of Hegel's lectures on aesthetics. Keywords: G.W.F. Hegel, H.G. Hotho, philosophy of art, aesthetics, forms of art, idea of beauty, ideal DOI: 10.21146/2074-5869-2018-23-2-131-138 Alexander S. Tsygankov. On the Way to the Revival of Metaphysics: S.L. Frank and E. Coreth Readers are invited to review the monograph of the modern German researcher Oksana Nazarova “The problem of the renaissance and new foundation of metaphysics through the example of Christian philosophical tradition. Russian religious philosophy (Simon L. Frank) and German neosholastics (Emerich Coreth)”, which was published in 2017 in Munich. In the paper, the author offers a comparative analysis of the projects of a new, “post-dogmatic” metaphysics, which were developed in the philosophy of Frank and Coreth. This study addresses the problems of the cognitive-theoretical and ontological foundation of the renaissance of metaphysics, the methodological tools of the new metaphysics, as well as its anthropological component. O. Nazarova's book is based on the comparative analysis of Frank's religious philosophy and Coreth's neo-cholastic philosophy from the beginning to the end. This makes the study unique in its own way. Since earlier in the German reception of the heritage of Russian thinker, the comparison of Frank's philosophy with the Catholic theology of the 20th century was realized only fragmentarily and did not act as a fundamental one. Along with a deep and meaningful analysis of the metaphysical projects of both thinkers, this makes O. Nazarova's book relevant to anyone who is interested in the philosophical dialogue of Russia and Western Europe and is engaged in the work of Frank and Coreth. Keywords: the renaissance of metaphysics, post-Kantian philosophy, Christian philosophy, S.L. Frank, E. Coreth DOI: 10.21146/2074-5869-2018-23-2-139-147.
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E Dolnick,N Cantor (1957). Fairclough, N. New Labour, New Language, London: Routledge, 2000 48 Travers, op. cit., p.122 49 Parker, op. cit., p.167 50 Ibid.,p.l20 51 Ibid.,p.96 52 Harper, op. cit., p.349 53 Parker, op. cit. 54 Curt, B. Textuality and Tectonics: Troubling Social and Psychological Science, Buckingham: Open University Press, 1994 55 Lowe, R. Family Therapy and the Uses of Postmodernism: From Revisionism to Descriptivism, University of Queensland: PhD Dissertation, 1995, p.52 56 Curt, op. cit. 57 Parker, op. cit. 58 Travers, op. cit., p.100 59 See, for example, Holloway & Jefferson, op. cit., Travers, op. cit., Chapman, J. The Rhythm Model. In I. Bruna-Seu & M. Colleen Heenan (eds) Feminism and Psychotherapy, London: Sage, 1998 60 Burr An introduction to Social Constructionism, London: Routledge, 1995, p.8.
Watson Likewise,Crick Were Led (1953). whom one would like to have as a friend, a member vertu, and publick civility’ (1953–82:1.816). of the family, or a guest, or whom one would call a The sources of the virtue may be found in Renais-gentleman. (The praise given him at i3.1–5 would sance moral manuals, such as Elyot’s Gouernour not apply to any other knight.) According to Colin, (1531) with its ﬁrst book treating ‘the best fourme those who possess the virtue may be recognized by of education or bringing up of noble children’ and the gifts given them by the Graces: ‘comely carriage, the planned second volume aiming to cover ‘all the entertainement kynde, | Sweete semblaunt, friendly reminant . . . apt to the perfection of a iuste publike ofﬁces that bynde’ (x 23.4–5) – or rather, according weale’ (1.2); or in Seneca’s De Beneﬁciis (tr. Arthur to the proem, given them by Elizabeth from whom Golding in 1578), as Archer 1987 argues; or in all virtues well ‘Into the rest, which round about you such courtesy books as Castiglione’s Courtier (1528, ring, | Faire Lords and Ladies, which about you tr. 1561) in which ‘The Count with golden vertue dwell, | And doe adorne your Court, where courtes-deckes’ the court, as Sackville wrote in its praise; and ies excell’ (7.7–9). especially Guazzo’s Civile Conversation (1574, tr. It follows, as Spenser acknowledges in the opening 1581/1586; see VI i 1.6n), for sections of it were line of canto i, ‘Of Court it seemes, men Courtesie included in Bryskett’s Discourse of Civill Life, which doe call’. In its wide range of meanings, the simplest claims to report his conversation with Spenser on is courtly etiquette and good manners. In this sense, moral philosophy. The full title of this last work, A it is more a social than a moral virtue, and therefore discourse, containing the ethicke part of morall philo-open to being feigned, as evident in the ‘faire dis-sophie: ﬁt to instruct a gentleman in the course of a sembling curtesie’ seen by Colin at Elizabeth’s court vertuous life, could serve as a subtitle of Spenser’s (Colin Clout 700), which is ‘nought but forgerie’ poem, especially since Bryskett tells Lord Grey that (VI proem 5.3). While it is the virtue most closely his end is ‘to discourse upon the morall vertues, yet associated with the Elizabethan court and Elizabe-not omitting the intellectuall, to the end to frame a than culture generally, Spenser’s treatment of it goes gentleman ﬁt for civill conversation, and to set him far beyond his own culture. As Chang 1955:202–20 in the direct way that leadeth him to his civill felicitie’ shows, it has an illuminating counterpart in the (6). See ‘courtesy books’ in the SEnc. Confucian concept of ritual. Spenser fashions a virtue As the ﬁnal book of the 1596 edition, appropri-that may best be called civility, which is the basis ately Book VI raises larger questions about the whole of civilization; see VI proem 4.5n. Yet civility in poem. One such question is the relation of Spenser’s its political expression could legitimize violence in art to nature, and, for a generation of critics, the Ireland, as P. Stevens 1995 notes, and it is not sur-seminal essay has been ‘A Secret Discipline’ by Harry prising to see the patron of courtesy slaughtering the Berger, Jr, in which he concludes that ‘the secret (Irish) brigands at VI xi 46. Accordingly, its link with discipline of imagination is a double burden, discord-Machiavelli’s virtù has been rightly noted by Neuse ant and harmonious: ﬁrst, its delight in the power 1968 and Danner 1998. On its general application and freedom of art; second, the controlled surrender to the uncertain human condition, see Northrop whereby it acknowledges the limits of artiﬁce’ 2000. Ideally, though, it is the culminating moral (1988:242; ﬁrst pub. 1961). As chastity is to Brito-virtue of The Faerie Queene, and, as such, has the mart, courtesy is to Calidore: the virtue is natural religious sense expressed by Peter in addressing those to him. He is courteous ‘by kind’ (ii 2.2): ‘gentle-whose faith, according to the Geneva gloss, is con-nesse of spright | And manners mylde were planted ﬁrmed ‘by holines of life’: ‘be ye all of one minde: naturall’ (i 2.3–4). It is natural also to Tristram one suffre with another: loue as brethren: be pitiful: because of his noble birth (ii 24) and proper nurtur-be courteous’ (1 Peter 3.8); see, for example, ing, as shown by his defence of the lady abused by Morgan 1981, and Tratner 1990:147–57. Without her discourteous knight. Its powers are shown in the courtesy’s ‘civility’ there would be no civilization; three opening cantos: Calidore may reform both without its ‘friendly ofﬁces that bynde’ (x 23.5), Crudor when he is threatened with death, and his there would be no Christian community. By includ-lady, Briana, who is ‘wondrously now chaung’d, ing courtesy among the virtues, Spenser fulﬁls from that she was afore’ (i 46.9) when she sees the Milton’s claim in Reason of Church Government that change in him (41–43). Also, he may restore Aldus.
T Doby (1963). Salâ. Ibid. Stela. Op. cit. 236, n. 146..
Al-Ma'arri Ca (1025). A. Studies in Islamic Poetry.
J Fichte,H Wells (1792). Versuch einer Kritik aller Offengarung.
W Terdoslavich,Barzun (2000). Antiochia. Columna. Op. cit. 232.

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James F. Welles. 2019. \u201cStupidity in the Age of Reason\u201d. Global Journal of Human-Social Science - H: Interdisciplinary GJHSS-H Volume 19 (GJHSS Volume 19 Issue H5): .

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GJHSS Volume 19 Issue H5
Pg. 39- 61

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Crossref Journal DOI 10.17406/GJHSS

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Submission ReceivedDecember 13, 2018
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