The Relationship of Police Officers Age and Educational Level with their Perception of Bias-Based Policing

Barr Younker
Barr Younker * §
Contact
§ Auburn University at Montgomery Auburn University at Montgomery

Send Message

To: Author

The Relationship of Police Officers Age and Educational Level with their Perception of Bias-Based Policing

Article Fingerprint

ReserarchID

4R47S

The Relationship of Police Officers Age and Educational Level with their Perception of Bias-Based Policing Banner

Key Research Insights

Synthesized scholarly intelligence & interactive research assistant
Access Review Comments
  • English
  • Afrikaans
  • Albanian
  • Amharic
  • Arabic
  • Armenian
  • Azerbaijani
  • Basque
  • Belarusian
  • Bengali
  • Bosnian
  • Bulgarian
  • Catalan
  • Cebuano
  • Chichewa
  • Chinese (Simplified)
  • Chinese (Traditional)
  • Corsican
  • Croatian
  • Czech
  • Danish
  • Dutch
  • Esperanto
  • Estonian
  • Filipino
  • Finnish
  • French
  • Frisian
  • Galician
  • Georgian
  • German
  • Greek
  • Gujarati
  • Haitian Creole
  • Hausa
  • Hawaiian
  • Hebrew
  • Hindi
  • Hmong
  • Hungarian
  • Icelandic
  • Igbo
  • Indonesian
  • Irish
  • Italian
  • Japanese
  • Javanese
  • Kannada
  • Kazakh
  • Khmer
  • Korean
  • Kurdish (Kurmanji)
  • Kyrgyz
  • Lao
  • Latin
  • Latvian
  • Lithuanian
  • Luxembourgish
  • Macedonian
  • Malagasy
  • Malay
  • Malayalam
  • Maltese
  • Maori
  • Marathi
  • Mongolian
  • Myanmar (Burmese)
  • Nepali
  • Norwegian
  • Pashto
  • Persian
  • Polish
  • Portuguese
  • Punjabi
  • Romanian
  • Russian
  • Samoan
  • Scots Gaelic
  • Serbian
  • Sesotho
  • Shona
  • Sindhi
  • Sinhala
  • Slovak
  • Slovenian
  • Somali
  • Spanish
  • Sundanese
  • Swahili
  • Swedish
  • Tajik
  • Tamil
  • Telugu
  • Thai
  • Turkish
  • Ukrainian
  • Urdu
  • Uzbek
  • Vietnamese
  • Welsh
  • Xhosa
  • Yiddish
  • Yoruba
  • Zulu
Reading Preferences
Font Size
Line Spacing
Background
This converted HTML version may contain rendering inconsistencies. Please refer to the PDF for the authoritative version, or click here to provide feedback.

Abstract

In a survey study of police officers in Alabama, this paper assesses how demographic factors of police officers, their reception of training on cultural diversity, and the awareness of their department’s written policy on bias-based policing are related to their perception of bias-based policing practices in their department. To achieve the goal of the present study, a survey of 400 officers was used to run multivariate logistic regression analyses. Three variables display significant association with a police officer’s perception regarding witnessing bias-based policing practices. Officers with younger age group, higher education, and longer work experience in the department are more likely to say that they have witnessed bias-based policing practices as compared with their counterparts with older age groups, lower education, and shorter work experience.

References

93 Cites in Article
  1. 1. N Alex (1969). Black in blue: A study of the Negro policeman. Black in blue: A study of the Negro policeman
  2. 2. G Alpert,R Dunham,M Smith (2007). Investigating racial profiling by the Miami-Dade Police Department: A multimethod approach. Criminology & Public Policy, 6, 25-56.
  3. 3. B Altemeyer (1998). The other -authoritarianism personality. Advances in experimental social psychology, 30, 47-92.
  4. 4. D Bayley,H Mendelsohn (1969). Minorities and the police. Minorities and the police
  5. 5. A Benforado (2010). Quick on the draw: Implicit bias and the second amendment. Oregon Law Review, 89, 1-80.
  6. 6. Mark Brandt,P Henry (2012). Gender Inequality and Gender Differences in Authoritarianism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(10), 1301-1315.
  7. 7. D Black (1976). The behavior of law. The behavior of law
  8. 8. Kenneth Bolton (2003). Shared perceptions: black officers discuss continuing barriers in policing. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 26(3), 386-399.
  9. 9. L Brooks (2001). Police discretionary behavior: A study of style. Critical issues in policing: Contemporary readings, 117-131.
  10. 10. M Brown (1988). Working the street: Police discretion and the dilemmas of reform. Working the street: Police discretion and the dilemmas of reform
  11. 11. R Brown,J Frank (2006). Race and officer decision making: Examining differences in arrest outcomes between Black and White Officers. Justice Quarterly, 23(1), 96-126.
  12. 12. R Brown,J Frank (2006). Race and officer decision making: Examining differences in arrest outcomes between Black and White Officers. Justice Quarterly, 23(1), 96-126.
  13. 13. D Bush,Iii Gallagher,B Weiner,W (1982). Patterns of authoritarianism between Generations. The Journal of Social Psychology, 116, 91-97.
  14. 14. Elizabeth Burbeck,A Farnham (1985). The Recruit Selection Interview. The Police Journal: Theory, Practice and Principles, 58(3), 233-242.
  15. 15. Eva Buzawa (1981). The role of race in predicting job attitudes of patrol officers. Journal of Criminal Justice, 9(1), 63-77.
  16. 16. David Carter,Allen Sapp (1990). The evolution of higher education in law enforcement: Preliminary findings from a national study. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 1(1), 59-85.
  17. 17. W Cascio (1977). Formal education and police officer performance. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 5, 89-96.
  18. 18. Valencia Campbell (1980). DOUBLE MARGINALITY OF BLACK POLICEMEN. Criminology, 17(4), 477-484.
  19. 19. J Chan (2011). Racial profiling and police subculture. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 53, 75-78.
  20. 20. B Cohen,J Chaiken (1972). Police Background Characteristics and Performance, R-999-DOJ. Police Background Characteristics and Performance, R-999-DOJ
  21. 21. Amy Cabrera,Michael Jiroutek,Andrew Thornton,Jennifer Bunn (1969). Wellness Responses During Different Length Match Microcycles in Collegiate Women’s Lacrosse. Research in Sport Education and Sciences, 25(3), 74-81.
  22. 22. I Cornelis,A Van Hiel,A Roets,M Kossowska (2009). Age differences in conservatism: Evidence on the mediating effects of personality and cognitive style. Journal of Personality, 77, 51-86.
  23. 23. Joshua Correll,Bernadette Park,Charles Judd,Bernd Wittenbrink,Melody Sadler,Tracie Keesee (2007). Across the thin blue line: Police officers and racial bias in the decision to shoot. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1006-1023.
  24. 24. Across the thin blue line: Police officers and racial bias in the decision to shoot. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 1006-1023.
  25. 25. John Crank,Colleen Kadleck,Connie Koski (2010). The USA: the next big thing. Police Practice and Research, 11(5), 405-422.
  26. 26. A Dalley (1975). University vs. non-university graduated policeman: Study of police attitudes. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 3, 458-468.
  27. 27. John Duckitt (1992). Education and Authoritarianism Among English- and Afrikaans-Speaking White South Africans. The Journal of Social Psychology, 132(6), 701-708.
  28. 28. M Dulaney (1996). Black Police in America. Black police in America
  29. 29. Mary Dodge,Mark Pogrebin (2001). African‐American policewomen: An exploration of professional relationships. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 24(4), 550-562.
  30. 30. Robin Engel,James Sobol,Robert Worden (2000). Further exploration of the demeanor hypothesis: The interaction effects of suspects' characteristics and demeanor on police behavior. Justice Quarterly, 17(2), 235-258.
  31. 31. Erika Fairchild (1987). Women Police in Weimar: Professionalism, Politics, and Innovation in Police Organizations. Law & Society Review, 21(3), 375-402.
  32. 32. R Friedrich (1977). The impact of organizational, individual and situational factors on police behavior. The impact of organizational, individual and situational factors on police behavior
  33. 33. J Finnegan (1976). A Study of the Relationship Between College Education and Police Performance in Baltimore, Maryland. Police Chief, 60-62.
  34. 34. J Fyfe (1981). Traffic stop encounters: officer and citizen race and perceptions of police propriety. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 35(4), 367-382.
  35. 35. James Fyfe (1988). Police use of deadly force: Research and reform. Justice Quarterly, 5(2), 165-205.
  36. 36. Martin Gächter,David Savage,Benno Torgler (2011). Gender Variations of Physiological and Psychological Strain Amongst Police Officers. Gender Issues, 28(1-2), 66-93.
  37. 37. Joel Garner,Christopher Maxwell,Cedrick Heraux (2002). Characteristics associated with the prevalence and severity of force used by the police. Justice Quarterly, 19(4), 705-746.
  38. 38. William Geller,Kevin Karales (1981). Shootings of and by Chicago Police: Uncommon Crises Part I: Shootings by Chicago Police. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (1973-), 72(4), 1813.
  39. 39. W Geller,M Scott (1992). When Police Shootings Kill. Deadly Force, 172-196.
  40. 40. Jack Greene,Timothy Bynum,Vincent Webb (1984). Patterns of entry, professional identity, and attitudes toward crime-related education: A study of criminal justice and criminology faculty. Journal of Criminal Justice, 12(1), 39-59.
  41. 41. Robin Haarr (1997). Patterns of interaction in a police patrol bureau: Race and gender barriers to integration. Justice Quarterly, 14(1), 53-85.
  42. 42. Eric Hanushek,John Jackson (1977). Generalized Least Squares. Statistical Methods for Social Scientists, 141-178.
  43. 43. D Harris (1999). Driving While Black: Highways, Shopping Malls, Taxicabs, Sidewalks – What to Do if You Are a Victim of Racial Profiling. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 24(2), 263-266.
  44. 44. D Harris (2002). Profiles in injustice: why racial profiling cannot work. Choice Reviews Online, 40(01), 40-0360-40-0360.
  45. 45. Ralph Ioimo,Rachel Tears,Leslie Meadows,J Becton,Michael Charles (2007). The Police View of Bias-Based Policing. Police Quarterly, 10(3), 270-287.
  46. 46. Ralph Ioimo,J Becton,Leslie Meadows,Rachel Tears,Michael Charles (2008). Comparing the police and citizen views on biased policing. Criminal Justice Studies, 22(2), 123-140.
  47. 47. Ralph Ioimo,J Becton,Leslie Meadows,Rachel Tears,Michael Charles (2009). Comparing the police and citizen views on biased policing. Criminal Justice Studies, 22(2), 123-140.
  48. 48. M Kemmelmeiser (2010). Gender moderates the impact of need for structure on social beliefs: Implications for ethnocentrism and authoritarianism. International Journal of Psychology, 45(3), 202-211.
  49. 49. J Krimmel (1996). The performance of college educated police: a study of self-rated police performance measures. American Journal of Police, 15, 85-96.
  50. 50. S Leinen (1984). Black police, white society. Black police, white society
  51. 51. Richard Lippa (1995). Gender-related individual differences and psychological adjustment in terms of the Big Five and circumplex models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(6), 1184-1202.
  52. 52. A Lurigio,D Rosenbaum (1992). The Detroit Police Department Radio System. The American Journal of Police Science, 1(5), 456.
  53. 53. Susan Martin (1994). "Outsider within" the Station House: The Impact of Race and Gender on Black Women Police. Social Problems, 41(3), 383-400.
  54. 54. V Martin (1999). Figure 9: In the figure, the black car is driving away while being chased by a police car (Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3opDcpPxllE&t=50s). Our SSVC model only predicts the driving part. Figure 9: In the figure, the black car is driving away while being chased by a police car (Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3opDcpPxllE&t=50s). Our SSVC model only predicts the driving part., 11.
  55. 55. Stephen Mastrofski,Robert Worden,Jeffrey Snipes (1998). LAW ENFORCEMENT IN A TIME OF COMMUNITY POLICING*. Criminology, 33(4), 539-563.
  56. 56. Stephen Mastrofski,Robert Worden,Jeffrey Snipes (1995). LAW ENFORCEMENT IN A TIME OF COMMUNITY POLICING*. Criminology, 33(4), 539-563.
  57. 57. Joann Mcgeorge,Jerome Wolfe (1976). A Comparison of Attitudes between Men and Women Police Officers: A Preliminary Analysis. Criminal Justice Review, 1(2), 21-33.
  58. 58. Jaime Napier,John Jost (2008). The “Antidemocratic Personality” Revisited: A Cross‐National Investigation of Working‐Class Authoritarianism. Journal of Social Issues, 64(3), 595-617.
  59. 59. (2004). Fairness and effectiveness in policing: The evidence. Committee to Review Research on Police Policy and Practices
  60. 60. M Anderson (2005). Fairness and Effectiveness in Policing: The Evidence: Edited by Wesley Skogan & Kathleen Frydl. National Research Council Committee to Review Research on Police Policy & Practices, Committee on Law & Justice, Division of Behavioral & Social Sciences & Education. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2004. pp. xiii + 413. $44.95 (hard). Journal of Communication, 55(4), 872-874.
  61. 61. Kenneth Novak,Robert Brown,James Frank (2006). Women on patrol: an analysis of differences in officer arrest behavior. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 34(4), 566-587.
  62. 62. E Palmer (1973). Black police in America. Black Scholar, 5, 19-27.
  63. 63. L Parker,J Donnelly,J Gerwitz,J Marcus,V Kowalewski (1976). Higher education: its impact on police attitudes. Police Chief, 43, 33-35.
  64. 64. John Ray (1985). What Old People Believe: Age, Sex, and Conservatism. Political Psychology, 6(3), 525.
  65. 65. R Regoli,W Miracle (1980). Professionalism Among Criminal Justice Educators. Joint Commission on Criminology and Criminal Justice Education Standards
  66. 66. Eric Riksheim,Steven Chermak (1993). Causes of police behavior revisited. Journal of Criminal Justice, 21(4), 353-382.
  67. 67. R Roberg,J Kuykendall (1997). Police Management. Police Management
  68. 68. R Roberg (1978). Analysis of relationships among higher-education, belief systems, and job performance of patrol officers. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 6, 336-344.
  69. 69. Patricia Remmington (1983). Women in the police: Integration or separation?. Qualitative Sociology, 6(2), 118-135.
  70. 70. B Sanderson (1977). Oversight and chief officers’ relationships with police authorities, directly elected police crime commissioners, HMIC and the Home Office. Policing at the top, 44, 119-176.
  71. 71. A Sapp (1978). Sam Houston State University. Graduate Study in Criminology and Criminal Justice, 256-261.
  72. 72. L Sherman (1980). Causes of police behavior: The current state of quantitative research. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 17, 69-100.
  73. 73. J Skolnick (1966). Justice without trial. Justice without trial
  74. 74. W Skogan,S Hartnett (1997). Community policing, Chicago style. Community policing, Chicago style
  75. 75. Michael Smith,Geoffrey Alpert (2007). Explaining Police Bias. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34(10), 1262-1283.
  76. 76. Brad Smith,Malcolm Holmes (2003). COMMUNITY ACCOUNTABILITY, MINORITY THREAT, AND POLICE BRUTALITY: AN EXAMINATION OF CIVIL RIGHTS CRIMINAL COMPLAINTS*. Criminology, 41(4), 1035-1064.
  77. 77. D Smith,J Klein (1983). Police agency characteristics and arrest decisions. Evaluating performance of criminal justice agencies, 63-97.
  78. 78. D Smith,E Ostrom (1974). The effects of training and education on police attitudes and performance: a preliminary analysis. The Potential for Reform of Criminal Justice, 45-81.
  79. 79. A Smith,B Locke,A Fenster (1970). Authoritarianism in policemen who are college graduates and non-college police. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science, 61, 313-315.
  80. 80. Ivan Sun (2002). Police officer attitudes toward peers, supervisors, and citizens: A comparison between field training officers and regular officers. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 27(1), 69-83.
  81. 81. Ivan Sun,Doris Chu (2008). Gender differences in policing: an analysis of Taiwanese officers’ attitudes. Police Practice and Research, 9(5), 431-443.
  82. 82. Ivan Sun (2003). Police officers’ attitudes toward their role and work: A comparison of black and white officers. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 28(1), 89-108.
  83. 83. Ivan Sun,Brian Payne,Yuning Wu (2002). The impact of situational factors, officer characteristics, and neighborhood context on police behavior: A multilevel analysis. Journal of Criminal Justice, 36(1), 22-32.
  84. 84. John Teahan (1975). A Longitudinal Study of Attitude Shifts among Black and White Police Officers. Journal of Social Issues, 31(1), 47-56.
  85. 85. R Thompson (2003). Career experiences of African American police executives: Black and blue revisited. Career experiences of African American police executives: Black and blue revisited
  86. 86. R Trojanowicz,T Nicholson (1976). A comparison of behavioural styles of college graduate police v. non-college-going police officers. Police Chief, 43, 57-58.
  87. 87. J Trojanowicz,Robert Trojanowicz (1972). POLICE‐COMMUNITY RELATIONS Problems and Process. Criminology, 9(4), 401-423.
  88. 88. Tom Tyler,J Yuen,Huo (2002). Trust in the law: Encouraging public cooperation with the police and courts. Trust in the law: Encouraging public cooperation with the police and courts
  89. 89. John Van Maanen (1973). Observations on the Making of Policemen. Human Organization, 32(4), 407-418.
  90. 90. S Walker,C Katz (2002). The police in America: An introduction. The police in America: An introduction
  91. 91. Charles Weaver (1976). Black-white differences in attitudes toward job characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(4), 438-441.
  92. 92. R Weitzer,S Tuch (2002). Perceptions of racial profiling: Race, class, and personal experience. Criminology, 40(2), 435-457.
  93. 93. Robert Worden (1989). Situational and Attitudinal Explanations of Police Behavior: A Theoretical Reappraisal and Empirical Assessment. Law & Society Review, 23(4), 667-711.
Show All References
Download References

Funding

No external funding was declared for this work.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

No ethics committee approval was required for this article type.

Data Availability

Not applicable for this article.

How to Cite This Article

Barr Younker. 2013. "The Relationship of Police Officers Age and Educational Level with their Perception of Bias-Based Policing". Global Journal of Human-Social Science - A: Arts & Humanities GJHSS-A Volume 13 (GJHSS Volume 13 Issue A6).

More Citation Formats

Download Citation

  • Open Access
  • CC-BY-ND-NC 4.0
Download Article
Access OJS
Journal Specifications

Crossref Journal DOI 10.17406/GJHSS

Print ISSN 0975-587X

e-ISSN 2249-460X

Keywords
bias-based policingofficer’s ageofficer’s educational levelracial profiling
Classification
GJHSS-A Classification FOR Code: 160205
  • Submission ReceivedDecember 14, 2012
  • Peer Review Double Blind
    Handling Editor
  • Accepted January 4, 2013
  • Published January 15, 2013
Version of record

v1.2

Issue date
November 30, 2013

Language
English
Order Article Reprint
Experiance in AR

Explore published articles in an immersive Augmented Reality environment. Our platform converts research papers into interactive 3D books, allowing readers to view and interact with content using AR and VR compatible devices.

View in VR
Read in 3D

Your published article is automatically converted into a realistic 3D book. Flip through pages and read research papers in a more engaging and interactive format.

View in 3D
Article Matrices
Total Views: 1.6K
Total Downloads: 109
All Trends

Request Access

Please fill out the form below to request access to this research paper. Your request will be reviewed by the editorial or author team.
X

This is the heading

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Ut elit tellus, luctus nec ullamcorper mattis, pulvinar dapibus leo.

High-quality academic research articles on global topics and journals.

The Relationship of Police Officers Age and Educational Level with their Perception of Bias-Based Policing

Barr Younker
Barr Younker Auburn University at Montgomery
  • Submission ReceivedDecember 14, 2012
  • Peer Review Double Blind
    Handling Editor
  • Accepted January 4, 2013
  • Published January 15, 2013